4 

\ 


"STUDY   ME.' 


PART  I. 

lUTRITlVE  APPAKATUS. 

CHAP.  I. 
DIGESTIVE   SYi- 

T£M, 

CHAP.  II. 

RESPIRATORY    • 

SYSTEM, 

CHAP.  III. 

CIRCULATORY 

P.S| 

7 
10 
14 
20 
22 
26 
30 
32 
35 

37 
39 
43 
45 
49 

50 
52 
53 

Introduction,      .    .     . 
General  analysis,   .    . 
Teeth 

Salivary  glands,     .    . 

Small  intestine,      .    . 

Large  intestine,      .     . 
Synthetic  review,  .    . 

|  Pulmonary  vessels,     . 
Air                 .    .    .    . 

[Synthetic  review,  .    . 
r  Heart     

[  Pulmonic  circulation,. 
)  Svstflmir.  circulation.  . 

"  I  am  fearfully  and 
wonderfully  made." 


CHAP.  IV.      (  Vocal  organs, 
VOCAL  SYSTEM,  |  Synthetic  reviev 


61 


5j 

v>n/\r.  i. 
CEREBRO  SPINAL 

Spinal  cord  and  nerves, 

72 

SYSTEM, 

Synthetic  review,   .    . 

77 

\  < 

1 

Feeling,     

78 
78 

Ti 

CHAP.  II. 

Smell                  .     .     . 

80 

p 

SENTIENT    vt*-\ 

81 

£ 

TEM, 

Hearing,    

86 

1 

» 

Synthetic  review,  .     . 

91 

i                    . 

'Head,    

93 

. 

Trunk,  

95 

P 

H 

CHAP.  I. 

OSSEOUS    SYS-   < 

Upper  extremities,  .    . 
Lower  extiemities,     . 

98 
102 

M 

TEM, 

Composition  of  bones, 

105 

Joints,  

108 

£ 

^Synthetic  review,  .    . 

111 

. 

CHAP.  II. 

'  Muscles,    

]]0 

!> 

MUSCULAR    SYS- 

1 Musrcles,  continued,    . 

110 

TEM, 

Synthetic  review,  .    . 

119 

§ 

CHAP.  III. 

121 

g 

CUTANEOUS  SYS. 

Cutis  vera,      .... 

124 

IS 

CHAP.  IV. 

Animal  heat,  .... 
Synthetic  review,  .     . 

128 
130 

* 

General  synthetic  rev., 

132 

(SCHOOL  EDITION.) 


HUMAN    AND    COMPARATIVE 


ANATOMY, 


PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  HYGIENE. 


BY 

MRS.     EUNICE     P.    CUTTER 


• 


WITH  ONE  HUNDRED  ENGRAVINGS. 


A  NO  STEREOTYPED. 

NriW  YORK: 
CLARK,    AUSTIN    AND    SMITH 

CINCINNATI  :—W.  B.  SMITH  &  CO. 
ST.  LOUIS,  MO.:—  KEITH  <fc  WOODS. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1854,  iy 

CALVIN    CUTTER,    M     D 
In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  Disv»ct  oi  \ 


STEREO  TTPB  DAT  T 
BOSTON  STEHEOTYPK  FO 


GIFT 


C8 


PREFACE. 


THIS  small  manual  is  designed  for  pupils  of  that  maturity  of 
mind  at  which  they  can  profitably  pursue  the  study  of  primary 
arithmetic,  geography,  or  grammar.  Indeed,^!  can  be  used  before 
geography  or  grammar,  as  it  is  the  simpler  and  more  interesting 
study. 

Its  object  is  twofold  :  1.  To  teach  the  child  something  of  the 
general  structure  of  man  and  animals,  with  the  use  of  the  dif- 
ferent parts,  and  to  suggest  practical  hints  relative  to  the  preserva- 
tion of  health.  2.  To  indicate  a  method  of  instruction.  Instruc- 
tion includes  reading,  study,  and  teaching.  Since  profitable  read- 
ing and  study  require  the  same  analysis  and  method  as  clear  and 
efficient  teaching,  therefore  text  books  should  be  so  arranged  as  to 
afford  readers,  pupils,  and  teachers  an  index  to  the  unfolding  and 
the  necessary  aid  to  the  understanding  of  the  subject. 

TO  PUPILS. 

Since  methods  of  study  and  preparation  for  recitation  are  im- 
portant, we  would  suggest  the  following  :  1.  Carefully  read  the 
lesson,  and  commit  to  memory  the  definitions  of  important  names 
or  terms.  2.  Compare  the  text  with  illustrating  diagrams,  to 
which  reference  is  made.  3.  Obtain  and  use  appropriate  mate- 
rial for  illustrations  in  connection  with  the  text  and  diagrams. 
4.  Draw  the  illustrating  diagrams  upon  paper,  slate,  or  black- 
board. 5.  If  able  to  write,  commit  to  paper,  plainly  and  con- 
cisely, the  ideas  of  the  lesson  in  your  own  language,  without  the 
aid  of  the  book. 

TO   TEACHERS. 

It  is  the  office  of  the  teacher  to  educate.  This  is  done  by  reci- 
tations and  by  general  exercises. 

1*  (5) 

210 


RECITATIONS. 

The  objects  of  a  recitation  are  to  review  the  previous  lesson,  to 
determine  if  pupils  comprehend  the  general  principles  of  the 
present  lesson  and  its  details,  to  correct  errors,  to  suggest  new 
principles  and  their  application,  to  communicate  new  facts,  to 
excite  observation,  to  induce  thought,  to  develop  expression,  to 
cultivate  the  taste,  to  direct  the  imagination,  to  invigorate  the 
memory,  to  strengthen  the  judgment,  and  to  expand  the  soul. 

To  accomplish  these  objects,  we  would  suggest  the  following 
method:  1.  Have  the  previous  lesson  reviewed  by  concise  oral 
or  written  abstracts,  aided  by  a  synthetic  tableau  upon  the  black- 
board. 2.  Have  the  leading  topics  of  the  present  lesson  stated7 
using  appropriate  illustrating  material.  3.  Have  other  principles 
and  facts  explained  by  the  use  of  outline  diagrams.  4.  Have 
the  lesson  still  further  elucidated  by  analytic  tableaux  of  the  text 
upon  the  blackboard,  and  also  by  drawing  the  illustrating  dia- 
grams. 5.  Examine  the  class  in  detail,  and  require  each  pupil 
to  propose  pertinent  questions.  6.  Have  the  pupils  present  con- 
cise oral  synopses  of  the  entire  lesson  and  its  illustrations.  1. 
The  teacher  should  give  a  genera)  analysis  or  method  for  the 
study  of  the  next  lessonr  and  also  communicate  to  the  class  such 
additional  principles  and  facts  as  are  essential  to  the  understand- 
ing of  the  subject. 

GENERAL   EXERCISES, 

These  are  valuable  once  or  twice  each  week.  The  whole 
school  should  participate  in  them.  The  following  is  a  method 
for  conducting  a  session  :  Let  eaeh  pupil  have  a  text  book,  and 
be  required  to  carefully  read  the  lesson  previous  to  the  exercise. 
The  teacher  should  analyze  and  explain  the  subject,  and,  in  an 
oral,  familiar  lecture,  communicate  additional  principles,  facts, 
and  illustrations.  This  may  be  followed  by  questions  to  the? 
members  of  the  school,  and  by  oral  synopses  of  the  lesson  and 
lecture  from  the  pupils,  accompanied  by  questions. 

To  the  candid  examination  of  teachers  and  guardians  <ji  youtJ* 
this  work  is  respectfully  submitted. 

E.  P.  CUTTEB, 
WAH.REN,  MASSACHUSETTS,  November  1, 1851, 


HUMAN   AND   COMPARATIVE 

ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND 
HYGIENE. 


INTRODUCTION. 

1.  HOWEVER  complete  a  machine  of  human  inven- 
tion, none  can  be  more  perfect  in  structure,  beautiful  in 
appearance,  or  harmonious  in  action  than  the  "  house 
we  live  in,"  which  is  framed  and  furnished  by  the  Great 
Architect,  God. 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  machines  made  by  man,  compared  with 
the  "  house  we  live  in  n  ? 

£.  A  watch  contains  beautiful  wheels  as  well  as  deli- 
cate springs,  all  of  which  are  surrounded  by  well-fitted 
cases.  Yet  the  body  contains  parts  more  beautiful, 
organs  more  delicate,  enclosed  in  cases  more  perfect  in 
construction. 

Q.  How  does  a  watch  compare  with  the  body,  in  beauty,  deli- 
cacy, and  perfection  l. 

3.  Look  at  a  watch,  how  beautiful  soever  its,  face,  it 
cannot  compare  in  loveliness  with  the  smile  that  plays 
upon  the  infant's  cheek.  The  hands  of  a  watch  tell  the 
hour  of  day  ;  but  they  have  no  sensation  or  feeling  like 
the  hands  of  a  child. 

m 


8  INTRODUCTION. 

Q.  What 'a  said  of  the  face  and  hands  of  a  watch  and  those 
of  a  child  ? 

4.  The  wheels  of  a  watch  move  regularly ;  but  the 
click,  click,  is  no  more  regular,  nor  more  varied,  than  the 
movements  of  the  parts  of  the  human  body. 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  movements  of  a  watch,  compared  with 
those  of  the  human  body  ? 

5.  The   watch   has    not   within  itself  the    power   of 
making  or  applying    the  oil  necessary  for  its  movable 
parts  ;  but  God  in  his  goodness  has  so  made  the  parts  of 
the  human  body  that  they  make  and  apply  as  they  need 
their  own  oily  fluid. 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  oil  needful  for  a  watch  ?     How  are  the 
joints  of  the  body  oiled  ? 

6.  The  form  and  size  of  a  watch  do  not  of   them- 
selves change  ;  but  man  varies  in  form  and  size  from  his 
cradle  to  his  grave.      Growth  and  decay  are  constant  in 
the  human  frame. 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  form  and  size  of  a  watch  and  that  of 
man  ?     What  are  constant  in  the  human  body  ? 

7.  If  a  watch  is  injured,  it  has  not  power  to  repair  or 
mend  itself.      Not  so  with  the  human  body  :  you  may 
bruise  it,  and  the  injured  part  possesses  a  power  that  is 
generally  able  to  heal  it. 

Q.  Can  a  watch  mend  or  heal  itself  ?    How  is  the  body  repaired 
when  bruised  ? 

8.  To  understand  the  structure  or  use  of  a  machine, 
it  is  necessary  to  examine  the  different  parts  separately 
as  well  as  combined.     The  same  is  true  of  the  body, 
which  is  so  "fearfully  and  wonderfully  made." 

Q.  What  is  necessary  in  order  to  understand  the  structure  and 
use  of  a  machine  or  the  human  body  ? 


INTRODUCTION. 

9.  For  convenience,  we   shall  divide  the  body  into 
ap-pa-ra'tus-es,  systems,  and  or'gans. 

Q.  What  are  the  general  divisions  of  the  body  ? 

10.  An    APPARATUS    is  an  assemblage  of  parts  pro- 
vided as  means  to  an  end ;  as,  the  furniture  of  a  house. 

Q.  Define  apparatus.     Give  an  example. 

11.  A  SYSTEM  is  an  assemblage  of  organs  or  parts  ad- 
justed into  a  regular  whole ;  as,  the  railroads  of  a  state 
or  country,  or  the  organs  of  digestion. 

Q.  Define  system.     Give  an  example. 

1£.  An  ORGAN  is  a  part  or  structure  in  which  some 
work  or  process  is  carried  on  ;  as,  a  railroad  locomotive 
or  the  stomach  of  man. 

Q.  Define  organ.     Give  an  example. 

13.  A  description  of  the  structure  of  man,  animals, 
birds,  or  plants  is  called  A-nat'o-my. 

Q.  What  is  anatomy  ? 

14.  A  description  of  the  uses  of  the  parts  of  man, 
birds,  fishes,  &c.  is  called  Phys-i-ol'o-gy. 

Q.  What  is  physiology  ? 

15.  A  statement  of  the  conditions  upon  which  the 
health   of  man,  animals,  and   plants    depends  is  called 
Hy-gi-ene'. 

Q.  What  is  hygiene  ? 

16.  HUMAN  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Hygiene  treat 
of  man:  Comparative,  of  other   animals   than   man,   and 
also  of  birds,  fishes,  and  plants. 

Q.  What  is  human  anatomy,  physiology,  and  hygiene  ?  What 
is  comparative  ? 

Review.  —  Give  the  comparisons  and  definitions  of  the 
terms  in  this  chapter. 


10  GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 

GENERAL  ANALYSIS.* 

17.  The  POSITION  of  the  principal  organs  of  '.he  body 
is  as  easily  learned  as  the   location  of  cities  or  towns. 
The  former  is  far  more  interesting  and  important  than 
the  latter. 

Q.  What  is  said  of  learning  the  position  of  the  parts  of  the 
body  ? 

18.  The  BODY  has  two  great  cavities  — a  lower  and  tin 
upper.   (Fig.  2.) 

Q.  Into  how  many  great  cavities  is  the  body  divided  ? 

19.  The  inferior  animals,  as  the  ox  and   horse,   ilso 
birds  and  fishes,  have  two  cavities  which  enclose  organs 
similar  to  those  in  the  human  body. 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  cavities  of  birds,  fishes,  and  the  infe- 
rior animals  '\ 

20.  The  LOWEII  cavity  comprises  the  mouth,  the  tho'rax, 
(chest.)  and  the  ab-do'men.  (Figs.  2,  3.) 

Q.  What  does  the  lower  cavity  contain  '* 

21.  The   MOUTH   contains   the   teeth    and    sal'i-va-ry 
glands.   (Figs.  2,  3.) 

Q.  What  does  the  mouth  contain  ? 

22.  The    THORAX    contains     the     lungs     and     heart. 
(Figs.  2,  3.) 

Q.  What  does  the  thorax  contain  ? 

23.  The  ABDOMEN  contains  the  stomach,  liver,  pan'- 
cre-as,  (sweetbread,)  spleen,  (milt,)  small  and  large  in- 
testine, and  kidneys.   (Figs.  2,  3.) 

Q.  What  does  the  abdomen  contain  1 

*  Illustrate  this  lesson  by  fishes,  diagrams,  drawings,  and  analytical 
tableaux  on  the  blackboard. 


GENERAL    ANALYSIS. 


11 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


19 


Fig.  2  represents  the  t\vo  great  cavities  of  the  body  and  their  organs.  1,  2,  3.  The 
lower  cavity.  1.  The  mouth.  2.  The  thorax.  3.  The  abdomen.  6.  A  salivary 
gland.  7.  The  esophagus.  8,  8.  The  trachea  and  lun^.-?.  9.  The  heart.  10.  Tho 
liver.  11.  The  stomach.  12.  Tho  colon.  13.  The  small  intestine.  14.  The  lacteals. 
15.  The  thoracic  duct.  16.  The  diaphragm.  17,  18,20,  20.  The  Avails  of  the  lower 
cavity,  composed  of  bones,  muscles,  and  skin. 

4,  5,  5.  The  upper  cavity  and  iu  organ?.  4.  The  brain.  5,  5.  The  spinal  cord. 
19, 20,  20.  The  walls  of  the  upper  cavity.  19.  The  cranium.  20,  20.  The  spinal 
column. 

Fig.  3  represents  the  position  of  the  organs  of  the  mouth,  thorax,  and  abdomen. 
1,2,3.  Salivary  glands.  4.  The  larynx  and  trachea.  5.  The  oesophagus.  6,6.  The 
rings.  7.  The  hcnrt.  8,  8.  The  liver.  9.  The  stomach.  19.  The  pancreas.  11.  The 
spieen.  10.  The  duodenum.  13,  13,  13.  The  small  intestine.  14,14,14.  The  large 
intestine 


IS  REVIEW. 

24.  The  UPPER  cavity  is  formed   by  the  cra'ni-um, 
(skull,)  and  by  the  bones  of  the  spi'nal  col'umn,  (back 
bone.)  Figs.  2,  o.) 

Q.  What  forms  the  upper  cavity  ? 

25.  The  CRANIUM  contains  the  brain ;  the  spinal  col- 
umn contains  the  spinal  cord.  (Fig.  2.) 

Q.  Where  are  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  found  ? 

26.  The  walls,  or  outside  of  these  cavities,  are  formed 
by  bones  and  muscles,  (lean  meat.)     The  whole  is  cov- 
ered by  the  skin.  (Figs.  2,  3.) 

Q.  What  forms  the  walls  of  these  cavities l     What  covers  the 
whole  ? 


REVIEW. 

21.  Teeth,  > 

Salivary  Glands,  \  In  the  MOUTH- 


22.  Lungs, 


23.  Stomach, 
Liver, 
Pancreas, 


Intestines, 
Kidneys 

25.  Brain, 
Spinal  Cord, 

26.  Bones,     \ 

Muscles,  V 
Skin,       } 


In  the  THORAX. 


In  the  ABDOMEN. 


In  the  SKULL  and 

SPINAL   COLUMN. 

Form  the  walls  of 
the  CAVITIES. 


LOWER  CAVITY, 

containing 
NUTRITIVE  APPARATUS. 


UPPER  CAVITY, 

containing 
SENSORIAL  APPARATUS. 

LOCOMOTIVE  and 
PROTECTIVE  APPARATUS, 


Review  by  Questions.  —  What  can  you  state  of  the  cavities  of  the  body  of 
man  ?  of  animals  ?  of  birds  ?  of  fishes  ?  What  do  these  cavities  contain  ? 
What  forms  the  walls  of  these  cavities  ? 

REVIEW  BY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  general  analysis  of  the  human  system, 
and  that  of  animals,  birds,  and  fishes.  (See  outline  anatomical.  Plates  V 
and  VIII.) 


PART  I. 

27.  IN  this  part  the  NUTRITIVE  APPARATUS  will  be 
described.  This  embraces  the  di-ges'tive,  re-spi'ra-to-ry, 
and  cir'cu-la-to-ry  systems,  or  the  "builders  up"  and 
"  pullers  down  "  of  the  body.  (Figs.  2,  3.) 

Q.  What  systems  are  classed  under  the  nutritive  apparatus  ? 


CHAPTER    I. 

28.  The  DIGESTIVE  SYSTEM  will  be  described  in  this 
chapter.  It  embraces  the  teeth,  sal'i-va-ry  glands, 
stom'ach,  small  in-tes'tine,  liver,  pan'cre-as,  (sweetbread,) 
lac'te-als,  and  large  in-tes'tine.  (Figs.  2,  3,  20.) 

Q.  How  is  the  digestive  system  divided  ? 


LESSON    I. 

29.  In  a  flouring  mill  there  are  burr  stones.  By  the 
rapid  motion  of  one  stone  upon  the  other,  wheat  and 
other  grains  are  crushed  and  made  fine ;  so  the  teeth,  by 
the  movement  of  the  lower  upon  the  upper  jaw,  cut, 
crush,  and  make  fine  the  solid  part  of  the  food. 

Q.  To  what  may  the  teeth  be  compared  ?  What  is  the  use  of 
the  teeth  ? 

2  (13) 


14 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


TEETH.  * 

30.  The  TEETH  are  connected   with   the  jaw  by  the 
sockets,  (al-ve'o-lar  processes.) 

Q.  How  are  the  teeth  connected  with  the  jaw  '? 

31.  The  SOCKETS  are  covered,  and  the  ne/k   of   the 
teeth  is  surrounded,  by  a  firm  membrane  called  gum* 

Q.  What  is  the  gum  ? 

Fig.  4. 


Fig.  4  represents  the  milk  teeth  from  the  left  side  of  the  jaw.  1,  2 
Cutting  teeth,  (incisors.)  3.  Eye  tooth,  (cuspid.)  4,  5.  Grinders, 
(molars.) 

32.  Children  have  twenty  teeth,  which  are  called  the 

*  To  illustrate  this  lesson,  use  the  jaws  and  teeth  of  different  ani- 
mals ;  as  the  ox,  horse,  squirrel,  as  well  as  man,  with  drawings  upon 
the  blackboard.  (See  Preface.) 


TEETH. 


15 


milk   teeth.     These   are    generally  removed   before   the 
child  is  eight  years  old.  (Fig.  4.) 

Q.  How  many  teeth  has  the  child?     What  are  they  called? 
When  are  they  removed  l 

Observation.  —  Calves,   lambs,   and   colts    have    milk 
teeth,  that  are  removed  early  like  human  teeth. 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  milk  teeth  of  calves,  lambs,  &c. 

33.  The    adult    or  fullgrown    person  hao  thirty -two, 
called  permanent  teeth.  (Fig.  5.) 

Q.  How  many  teeth  has    a    fullgrown   person?     What    are 
they  called  1 

Fig.  5. 


Fig.  5  represents  the  adult  teeth.  1,  2.  The  cutting  teeth,  (incisors.) 
3.  Eye  tooth,  (cuspid.)  4,  5.  Small  grinders,  (bicuspids.)  6.  7.  8. 
Grinders,  (molars.)  9,  9.  Neck  of  the  tooth. 

34.  The  front  teeth  that  cut  or  divide  the  food  are 
called  in-ci'sors,  (cutting  teeth.)  Those  that  crush  or 
grind  the  food  mo'lars,  (grinding  teeth.)  (Fig.  5.) 

Q.   What  are  the  front  teeth  called  ?    Those  that  crush  the  f.)o  •  < 


16  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AXD    HYGIENE. 

35.  The  part  of  the  tooth  above  the  jaw  is  culled  the 
crown,  the  portion  in  the  jaw  the  root.     The  neck  of 
the  tooth  is  where  the  root  and  crown  unite.   (Fig.  5.) 

Q.  What  part  of  the  tooth  is  called  the  crown?  The  root?  The 
neck  1 

36.  The  CROWN  of  the  tooth  contains  i'vo-ry,  or  bone, 
and  a  still  harder  substance,  called  en-am' el.     The  root 
has  no  enamel.  (Figs.  6,  7,  8.) 

Q.  What  does  the  crown  of  the  tooth  contain  1     How  does  the 
root  differ  from  the  crown  ? 

Fig,  7.  Fig.  6.  Fig.  8. 


Fig.  6.  A  section  of  a  molar  tooth  of  man.  1.  The  enamel.  2.  The 

ivory.  3.  The  cavity  containing  blood  vessels.  4,  5.  Artery  and  nerve. 

Fig.  7.  Section  of  the  molar  tooth  of  a  horse.  1.  The  enamel. 
2.  The  ivory.  3.  Canal  for  blood  vessels. 

Fig.  8.  Section  of  molar  tooth  of  a  dog.  1.  The  enamel.  2.  The 
ivory.  3.  Cavity  for  Blood  vessels. 

37.  The  ENAMEL  iii  man  covers  the  entire  crown  of 
the  tooth.  (Fig.  6.)  In  the  horse,  the  enamel  surrounds, 
but  does  not  cover,  the  upper  surface  of  the  crown, 
while  plates  of  it  exist  in  the  central  parts  of  the  tooth. 
(Fig.  7.)  In  the  teeth  of  animals  that  feed  upon  flesh, 


as  the  dog,  cat,  and  lion,  the  enamel  covers  the  cutting 
edges  of  the  crown.  (Fig.  8.)  In  the  gnawing  or  front 
teeth  of  squirrels,  rats,  and  rabbits,  the  enamel  is  only 
upon  the  front  surface.  (Fig.  1 1.) 

Q.  Where  is  the  enamel  of  the  tooth  in  man  ?  The  horse  l 
The  dog  ?  The  squirrel  ? 

Observation.  —  By  the  arrangement  of  the  enamel,  the 
grinding  teeth  of  the  horse  and  ox  are  always  uneven, 
like  a  millstone,  while  the  front  teeth  of  a  squirrel  are 
sharp.  For  this  reason  he  can  chisel  a  hole  so  quickly 
in  his  stolen  nut,  while  the  horse  and  ox  easily  grind 
grains  and  grasses.  The  large  teeth  of  animals  that  feed 
on  flesh,  as  the  cat,  dog,  and  lion,  by  the  form  of  the 
crown  and  arrangement  of  the  enamel,  are  sharp,  and  cut 
like  the  blades  of  shears. 

Q.   What  is  said  of  the  teeth  in  different  animals  1 


Fig.  9  represents  the  teeth  of  a  flesh-eating  animal. 
Fig.  10  represents  the  teeth  of  an  insect-eating  animal. 

38.  In  animals  that  live  on  insects  the  molar  teeth 
are  raised  into  conical  points,  which  lock  into  depressions 
in  the  teeth  of  the  opposite  jaw.  (Fig.  10.) 


18  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

Q.  H  jw  are  the  teeth  arranged  in  animals  that  eat  insects  ? 

39.  The  movement  of  the  lower  jaw  varies  in  differ- 
ent animals.  In  flesh-eating  animals,  as  the  cat  and 
lion,  the  movement  is  hingelike,  and  the  molar  teeth  are 
cutting  instruments  like  shears.  In  the  ox  and  horse 
the  movement  is  lateral,  and  the  molar  teeth  are  grind- 
ing instruments  like  a  millstone.  In  gnawing  animals  the 
movement  is  backward  and  forward,  with  no  lateral  mo- 
tion. In  man  we  find  a  moderate  degree  of  the  three 
movements  —  cutting,  grinding,  and  gnawing. 

Q.  What  is  the  movement  of  the  jaws  in  flesh-eating  animals  '\ 
In  grain  eating?  In  gnawing?  In  man  ? 

Remark.  —  Observe  the  movements  of  the  lower  jaw 
in  man,  the  cat,  squirrel,  and  horse,  to  illustrate  this 

paragraph. 

Fig.  11. 


Fig.  11.    Lower  jaw  of  a  squirrel.     1.  The  enamel  of  the  gnawing 
tooth.    2.  The  ivory.     3.  The  lateral  furrows  of  the  molar  teeth. 

40.  The  molar  teeth  of  squirrels,  rabbits,  and  rats 
have  lateral  furrows  upon  the  crown,  so  that  the  forward 
and  backward  movement  of  the  jaws  grinds  the  food  as 
perfectly  as  the  lateral  motion  of  the  jaws  of  a  horse, 
(Kg.  11.) 

Q.  How  are  the  molar  teeth  of  squirrels  farrowed  ?  Wha  is 
the  effect  of  this  in  grinding  food  ? 


TEETH 

41.  To  prevent  the  teeth  from  decaying,  they  must 
be  kept  clean.     The  teeth  and  gums  should  be  cleaned 
by  using  a  soft  brush  and  water  after  every  meal ;  also 
Defore  going  to  bed  and  after  rising  in  the  morning. 

Q.  Why  must  the  teeth  be  kept  clean  ?     How  should  they  be 
oieaned  ?     How  often  ? 

42.  The  teeth  should  not  be  used  to  crack  nuts,  bite 
shreads,  or    picked    with    pins.     Ivory  or  quill   tooth- 
picks should  be  used. 

Q.  For  what  purposes  should  the  teeth  not  be  used  ? 

REVIEW. 

30,  31,  32,  33,  34,  35,  36,  37,  38,  40.    Anatomy     ) 

29,  34,  37,  38,  39,  40 Physiology  >  of  the  TEETH. 

41,  42 Hygiene       ) 

Review  by  Questions.  —  What  can  you  say  of  the  structure  of  the  human 
teeth  ?  of  the  teeth  of  animals  f  What  can  you  tell  of  the  use  of  the  teeth 
in  man  ?  in  animals  ?  vVhat  can  you  relate  of  the  movement  of  the  jaws 
in  animals  ?  in  man  ?  How  may  the  teeth  he  preserved  ? 

REVIEW  BY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  teeth,  human  and  com* 
parative,  the  Physiology,  the  Hjgienc. 

LESSON   II. 

43.  To  make  a  solid  or  dry  substance  soft,  or  pulpy, 
as  making  flour  into  dough,  it  must  be  mixed  with  water 
or  some  other  fluid.     So  the  solid  food,  as  meat  or  dry 
biscuit,  when  divided  by  the  teeth,  needs  some  fluid  to 
fit  it  for  swallowing.     Hence  the  Author  of  our  being 
has  placed  some  little  bodies  about  the  mouth  that  sup- 
ply a  fluid.     These  bodies  are  called  salivary  glands. 

Q.  What  is  necessary  after  solid  food  is  divided  by  the  teeth  / 
What  are  the  bodies  called  that  supply  this  fluid  1 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AM)    HYGIENE. 


SALIVARY   GLANDS.* 

44.  The  SALIVARY  GLANDS  are  six  in  number,  three 
on  each  side  of  the  face.  (Figs.  12,  13.)  The  fluid  that 
flows  from  them  into  the  mouth  is  called  sa-li'va.  The 
common  name  is  spittle. 

Q.  How  many  salivary  glands  are  there  ?  What  is  the  name 
of  the  fluid  that  flows  from  them  ? 


Fig.  12, 


Fig.  13. 


Fig.  12.  The  mouth  laid  open.  1.  The  teeth.  3,  4.  Upper  and 
lower  jaws.  5.  The  tongue.  7,  8.  Salivary  glands.  9.  Trachea,  (wind- 
pipe.) 10,  11.  (Esophagus,  (gullet.)  12.  Spinal  Column, 

Fig.  13.  A  side  view  of  face.  1,  2.  Trachea.  3,  4.  (Esophagus. 
7,  8.  Salivary  glands.  9.  Duct  from  the  parotid  gland.  4,  5,  6. 
Muscles. 

Observation.  —  The  largest  of  these  glands,  (called 
parotid,)  which  lies  under  the  ear,  is  enlarged  in  the  dis- 
ease called  mumps.  (Figs.  12,  13.) 

Q    What  gland  is  diseased  in  mumps  ? 

*  Illustrate  this  lesson  by  using  similar  parts  of  animals,  outline 
plates,  the  blackboard,  and  experiments. 


SALIVARY    GLANDS.  £1 

Experin  int.  —  To  show  the  use  of  saliva,  take  half  a 
dry  biscuit  and  reduce  it  to  a  powder  ;  break  the  remain- 
ing half  into  small  pieces,  and  let  several  pupils  hold  a 
piece  in  the  mouth  until  moist  and  soft ;  and  the  effect 
of  saliva  upon  food  will  be  shown  by  comparing  the 
pulp  with  the  powdered  biscuit. 

Q.  How  can  the  effects  of  saliva  upon  solid  food  be  shown  ? 

45.  In   health,  we  need  not   drink  while  eating  or 
while  speaking.     The  flow  of  saliva  is  generally  sufficient 
to  moisten  both*  the  food  and  the  mouth.     We  may  drink 
moderately  after  eating. 

Q.  Is  it  necessary  to  drink  while  eating  or  speaking?  When 
may  we  drink  ? 

46.  It  is  not  healthy  to  chew  gums,  tobacco,  or  any 
hard  substance,  as  they  cause  a  great  flow  of  saliva.     The 
habit  of  frequent  spitting  is  also  injurious  to  health. 

Q.  Is  it  healthy  to  chew  gums  or  tobacco  ?  What  is  said  of 
frequent  spitting  1 

47.  The  food,  after  it  is  chewed  and  mixed  with  sa- 
liva, is  carried  from  the  back  side  of  the  mouth  through 
a  tube  to  the  stomach.     The  name  of  this  tube  is  ce-soph'- 
a-gus,  (gullet.)  (Figs.  12,  13.) 

Q.  What  becomes  of  the  food  after  it  is  mixed  with  saliva  \ 
What  is  the  name  of  this  tube  ? 

Remark.  —  Use  the  oesophagus  of  the  sheep,  calf,  or 
ox  to  illustrate  this  tube  in  man. 

REVIEW. 

44,47 Anatomy     ) 

43,  44,  47.    .    .    .     Physiology  >  of  the  SALITAET  GLAND*. 
45,46 Hygiene      J 

Review  by  Questions.  —  What  can  you  say  of  the  salivary  glands  ?  of  the  saliva?  of 
spitting?  of  chewing  gums  and  tobacco?  of  drinking?  of  swallowing? 

RBVIIW  BY  Tories. —  State  the  Anatomy  of  the  salivary  glands  and  oesophagus, 
the  Physiology,  the  Hygiene.  (See  outline  anatomical,  Plate  V.) 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE 


LESSON    III. 

48.  In  preparing  some  articles  for  food,  we  add  more 
than  one  kind  of  fluid  ;  so  the  pulpy  mass  that  has  passed 
from  the  mouth  to  the  stomach  needs  another  fluid  to 
make  it  soft  enough  to  pass  through  the  py-lor'ic  orifice 
(gatekeeper)   of  this  organ.     This  fluid  is  supplied  by 
the  stom'ach.   (Fig.  14.) 

Q.  What  is  necessary  to  render  the  pulpy  mass  in  the  stomach 
softer  ? 

THE   STOMACH.* 

49.  The  STOMACH  is  a  curved,  oblong  sac,  or  pouch, 
situated  in  the  left  side,   below  the  heart.     It  has  two 
openings  —  one  connected  with  the  oesophagus,  and  the 
other  connected  with  the  small  intestine.   (Fig.  14.) 

Q.  Describe  the  stomach?  How  many  openings  has  it? 
With  what  are  they  connected  1 

50.  The  stomach  is  made  up  of  three  coats,  or  mem- 
branes.    The  outer  coat  (se'rous)  is  smooth  and  glisten- 
ing.     The  middle  coat  (mus'cu-lar)  resembles  lean  meat. 
The  inner  coat  (mu'cous)  is  soft  like  velvet.      In  health, 
this  coat  is  a  delicate  peach  color.    (Tig.  14.) 

Q.  Of  what  is  the  stomach  composed  ?  What  is  the  appear- 
ance of  the  outer  coat?  The  middle  coat  !  The  inner  coat  .- 
Its  color  '>• 

51.  In  the  coats  of  the  stomach  are  very  small  bodies, 
called  gas'tric  glands.     These  supply   the  fluid  called 
gastric  juice.    (Fig.  14.) 

*  Illustrate  the  general  structure  of  the  stomach  by  using  that  of  a 
lam'n.  call',  fowl,  or  the  article  of  food  called  tripe  ;  outline  plates  ami 
the  blackboard. 


THE    STOMACH.  %6 

Jf 

Q.  Where  are  the  gastric  glands  found?  What  do  they 
supply  ? 

5£.  By  the  action  of  the  coats  of  the  stomach,  the 
food  is  turned  over  and  over  and  mixed  with  the  gastric 
juice,  which  changes  it  to  a  grayish  paste  called  chyme. 
This  is  passed  into  the  small  intestine.  (Fig.  14.) 

Q.  How  is  the  food  mixed  with  the  gastric  juice  ?  What  does 
the  food  become  ?  Into  what  does  it  pass  ? 

Observation.  —  The  gastric  juice  is  so  powerful  a  sol- 
vent that  it  will  corrode  or  eat  silver  and  hardened  steel. 


Fig.  14.  Inner  surface  of  the  stomach  and  part  of  the  small  intes- 
tine, (duodenum.)  1.  Lower  part  of  the  resophagus.  3.  The  stomach 
9.  The  opening  into  the  small  intestine.  10,  11,  14.  The  duodenum. 
12.  1.3.  Ducts  from  the  liver  and  pancreas,  a,  6,  c.  Three  coats  of  the 
stomach. 

53.  In  flesh-eating  animals  (car-niv'o-rous)  the  stom- 
ach is  small.  In  grass-eating  animals  (her-biv'o-rous] 
the  stomach  is  large  and  divided  into  several  sacs.  (Fig. 
15.) 


£4  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  size  of  the  stomach  of  flesh-eating 
animals  ?  Of  grass-eating  animals  ? 

54.  While  man  has  but  one  stomach,  the  sheep  and 
ox  have  four.  Birds  have  three  stomachs.  (Figs.  14, 
U,  81.) 

Q.  How  many  stomachs  have  the  ox  and  sheep  ?  How  many 
stomachs  have  birds  ? 

Fig.  15. 


Fig.  15.  The  stomach  of  the  sheep.  1.  (Esophagus.  2.  The  first 
stomach.  3.  The  second  stomach.  4.  The  third  stomach.  5.  The 
fourth  stomach.  6.  Intestine. 

55.  The  first  stomach  of  the  sheep  and  ox  receives  the 
food  from  the  mouth ;  and  when  moistened  it  is  passed 
into  the  second  stomach,  from  which  it  is  raised  to  the 
mouth  to  be  chewed.  The  food,  or  cud,  is  passed  into 
the  third  stomach,  and  there  it  is  mixed  with  some  othei 
fluids.  From  the  third  it  is  carried  into  the  fourth  stom- 
ach, and  then  into  the  intestine.  (Fig.  15.) 

Q.  Describe  the  passage  of  food  through  the  several  stomachs 
of  the  ox  and  sheep. 

Remark.  —  1.  Fluids,  as  water,  are  passed  directly 
into  the  second  stomach  of  the  ox  and  sheep.  2  Ren 


THE    STOMACH.  25 

that  is  used  in  making  cheese,  is  the  prepared  stom- 
ach of  the  calf. 

Q.  Whick  stomach  of  tke  ex  do  the  fluids  pass  into  ?  Of 
what  practical  use  is  the  stomach  of  the  calf  ? 

56.  The  food  of  birds  is  passed  into  the  first  stomach, 
•(crop ;)  here  it  is  moii>tened,  and  -thea  passed  into  the 
second  stomach,   and  becomes  mixed  with  the    gastric 
juice.     From  the  second  it  is  carried  to  the  third  stom- 
ach, (gizzard,)  where  it  is  ground,  thence  into  the  intes- 
tine, (Fig.  21.) 

Q.  Describe  tke  passage  of  food  through  the  stomachs  of  a 
fowl. 

57.  Food  is  needed  for  two  objects  —  one  for  the  growth 
of  the  body,  the  other  for  fuel  to  keep  the  body  warm* 

Q.   For  what  two  objects  do  we  nee<l  food  ? 

Observation.  —  Adult  persons,  if  their  habits  are  in- 
active, need  much  less  food  for  the  first  object  above 
named  than,  is  generally  supposed.  For  the  second 
object,  more  food  is  required  in  cold  than  in  warm 
weather, 

Q.  What  class  of  persons  require  but  little  food  ?  In  what 
weather  do  we  need  the  most  food  ?  Why  ? 

58.  Food  should  be  eaten  at  regular  periods.     The 
time  between  meals  should  vary  from  four  to  six  hours. 

Q.  When  should  food  be  eaten  ?     How  often  should  we  eat  ? 

Remark.  —  The  principles  of  the  last-mentioned  para- 
graphs should  be  observed  in  feeding  horses  and  other 
animals, 

Q.  What  care  should  we  have  in  feeding  domestic  animals  ? 

59.  The  stomach,  like  other  parts  of  the  body,  when 
used,  needs  rest.     For  this  reason,  food  should  not  be 


»6  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE, 

taken  between  meals,  particularly  " nice  bits"  and  con- 
fectionery. 

Q.  Why  shcmld  not  food  be  taken  between  meals  ? 

60.  To  prevent  dyspepsia,  or  indigestion  of  food,  we 
should  eat  slowly  and  chew  well  the  food.     We  should 
not  eat  when  tired   nor   when  we  feel  angry.      Gentle 
exercise  before  and  after  eating,  together  with  pleasant 
conversation,  tends  to  prevent  disease  of  the  stomach. 

Q.  What  are  some  of  the  means  to  prevent  indigestion  ? 

REVIEW. 

49r50,  51,53,  54 Anatomy     ) 

48,  51,  52,  55,  56,  57.  .     .     .     Physiology}  of  the  STOMACH. 
57,  58,  59,  60 Hygiene       5 

Review  by  Questions.  —  What  can  you  tell  of  the  structure  of  the  human  stomach  f 
of  the  stomach  of  animals  ?  of  birds  ?  of  the  gastric  juice  ?  What  can  you  state  of  the 
change  of  food  in  the  stomach  of  man?  in  animals?  in  birds?  For  what  is  food  need- 
ed ?  How  should  food  be  taken  ?  How  can  dyspepsia  be  prevented? 

REVIEW  BY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  stomach,  human  and  comparative, 
the  Physiology,  the  Hygiene.  (See  outline  anatomical,  Plate  V.) 

LESSON    IV. 

61.  To  prepare  some  articles  for  diet,  different  pro- 
cesses are  necessary  :  in  order  that  the  food  we  eat  may 
nourish  us,  it  must  undergo  one  process  or  change  in 
the  mouth,  another  in  the  stomach,  and  still  another  in 
the  small  intestine. 

Q.  Are  different  processes  necessary  to  fit  the  food  to  nour- 
ish us  % 

SMALL  INTESTINE,   LIVER,    AND   PANCREAS.* 

62.  The  SMALL  INTESTINE  is  a  tube  about  twenty  feet 

•*  As  the  liver,  pancreas,  and  small  intestine  of  domestic  animals  and 
birds  resemble  these  parts  in  man,  obtain  and  use  them  to  illustrate  tbi-9 
lesson  in  connection  with  charts  and  the  blackboard. 


SMALL    INTESTINE,    LIVER,    AND    PANCREAS.  27 

long  and  one  inch  in  diameter.  It  is  composed  of  coats, 
or  membranes,  like  the  stomach.  (Figs.  16,  20.) 

Q.  Describe  the  small  intestine. 

63.  In  flesh-eating  animals,  as  the  cat  and  lion,  and 
also  in  birds,  the  small  intestine,  compared  with  the 
length  of  the  animal,  is  much  shorter  than  in  man  ; 
while  in  grass-eating  animals,  as  the  sheep  and  ox,  it  is 
much  longer,  compared  with  the  length  of  the  body, 
than  in  man. 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  length  of  the  small  intestine  in  flesh- 
eating  animals  1  In  grass-eating  animals  l 


Fig.  16.     1,  2, 3.  The  small  intestine.     5, 6,  7,  8,  9.  The  large  intestine. 

Observation.  —  In  some  animals  the  small  intestine  is 
not  more  than  six  feet  long  ;  while  in  others,  as  the 
sheep  or  ox,  it  is  fifty  or  sixty  feet. 

Q.  What  is  said  in  the  observation  in  regard  to  the  length  of 
the  intestine  ? 

64.  The  upper  part  of  the  small  intestine,  that  con- 


28  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

nects  with  the  stomach,  is  called  the  du-o-de'num.  Here 
an  important  change  of  the  food  is  effected.  (Figs.  14, 
16,  17,  20.) 

Q.  What  is  the  upper  portion  of  the  small  intestine  called1? 
What  is  effected  in  this  tube  ? 

65.  The  LIVER  is  a  large  organ,  (gland,)  situated  above 
the  duodenum  and  in  the  right  side  of  the  body.     It 
supplies  a  sweetish,  yellow  fluid  called  bile.   (Figs.  17, 
20.) 

Q.  Describe  the  liver.     What  does  it  supply  ? 

66.  The  PANCREAS,  (sweetbread,)  is  a  long,  flattened 
organ,  situated  behind  the  stomach.      It  supplies  a  fluid 
resembling  saliva,  (spittle.),  (Figs.  17,  20.) 

Q.  Describe  the  pancreas.     What  does  it  supply  ? 


Fig.  17. 


Fig.  17.  1,1.  The  liver  turned  up.  2.  The  stomach.  3.  The  duode- 
num. 4.  The  pancreas.  5.  The  spleen.  6.  The  gall  cyst.  7.  The 
bile  duct.  8.  Duct  from  the  pancreas. 

67.  On  the  under  side  of  the  liver  is  a  small  sac, 
(gall  cyst,)  that  supplies  a  bitter,  greenish  fluid  called 
frail.  The  bile  and  gall  enter  the  duodenum  by  the 


SMALL   INTESTINE,    LIVER,    AND    PANCREAS.  29 

same  duct.     The  pancreatic  duct  enters  the  duodenum 
near  the  bile  duct.   (Figs.  17,  20.) 

Q.  What  is  found  on  the  under  side  of  the  liver  ?  Name  the 
fluids  that  pass  into  the  duodenum. 

Observation.  —  The  bile  flows  into  the  duodenum,  not 
into  the  stomach ;  hence  emetics,  pills,  and  bitters  are 
not  needed  to  remove  it  from  the  stomach.  (Figs.  17,  20.) 

Q.  Why  do  we  not  need  emetics  and  bitters  to  remove  bile 
from  the  stomach  ? 

68.  In  the  duodenum,  the  fluids  from  the  liver  and 
pancreas  unite  with  the  grayish  paste  (chyme)  and  change 
it  into  a  fluid  substance  called  chyle,  and  into  re-sid'u-um, 
(waste  matter.)  (Figs.  17,  20.) 

Q.  What  effect  have  the  fluids  from  the  liver  and  pancreas 
upon  chyme  in  the  duodenum  ?  Into  what  is  it  changed  ? 

69.  When  a  person  is  sick  of  fever,  inflammation,  diar- 
rhcea,  or  any  acute  disease,  food  should  not  be  taken,  as 
it  is  not  changed  into  chyme  or  chyle. 

Q.  When  should  a  person  abstain  from  food  ?     Why  ? 

Illustration.  —  Often  little  children,  when  faint  and 
weak  from  sickness,  ask  for  food ;  and  the  kind  mother,  to 
strengthen  them,  gives  what  she  calls  harmless  diet.  Too 
frequently  it  increases  the  pain  and  disease,  until  finally 
her  cherished  child  passes  from  this  world  to  its  spirit 
home. 

Q.  What  is  said,  in  the  illustration,  of  taking  food  ? 

70.  When  recovering  from  sickness,  food  should  be 
taken  at  regular  intervals  as  in  health.     Care  should  be 
taken  that  it  is  adapted  to  the  present  state  of  the  diges- 
tive organs,  in  quantity  as  well  as  quality. 

Q.  How  should  food  be  taken  when  recovering  from  sickness1 
What  caution  is  necessary  ? 

3* 


30  A>  ATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


REVIEW. 

62,  f.3,  04,  65,  66,  67.     .    Anatomy     ) 

61.  f>4,  65,'  GO,  G7,  68.     .     Physiology}0 

67,  69,  70.   ..     .     .     .     ILlgiene      $  -m.  r^u*^. 

Review  by  Questions.  —  Wliat  can  you  say  of  the  small  intestine  in  man  ?  in  flesh- 
eating  animals?  in  grass-eating  animals  ?  What  can.  you  relate  of  the  liver?  of  the 
bile?  What  ran  you  state  of  the  pancreas?  of  the  pancreatic  fluid?  What  can  you 
tell  of  the  change  of  food  in  the  small  intestine?  How  is  this  change  produced? 
What  can  you  say  of  the  food  in  sickness  ?  when  recovering  from  sickness  ? 

REVIEW  BY  TOPICS.  —  State  the  Anatomy  of  the  small  intestine,  liver  and  pan- 
creas, human  and  comparative,  the  Physiology,  the  Hygiene.  (See  outline  anatomical, 
Plate  V.) 


LESSON    V. 

71.  In  preparing  crushed  grain  for  bread,  the  meal  is 
sifted,  for  the  purpose  of  separating  the  waste  particles 
(bran)  from  the  flour.      So  in  the  human  body,  a  set  of 
ducts,  or  vessels,  called  lac'te-als,  act  like  sieves  in  sep- 
arating the  nourishing  part  of  the  food  (chyle)  from  the 
waste  matter,  (residuum.^  (Fig.  18.) 

Q.   How  is  flour  separated  from  the  bran  ?     How  is  the  chyle 
separated  from  the  residuum  ?     What  are  these  vessels  called  ? 

THE  LACTEALS  AND  THORACIC  DUCT* 

72.  The  LACTEALS  commence  in  the  internal  coat  of 
the  small  intestine.     These  minute  vessels  pass  through 
small  glands  and  unite  and  reunite  with  each  other,  un- 
til one  duct  is  formed,  called  tho-rac'ic.   (Fig.  18.) 

Q.  Where  do  the  lacteals  commence  ?     Describe  these  vessels. 

73.  The  THORACIC  DUCT  is  about  the  size  of  a  goose 

*  Illustrate  this  lesson  by  plates  and  the  blackboard. 


THE    LACTEALS    AND    THORACIC    DUCT.  O\ 

quill.  This  tube  commences  below  the  pancreas,  and 
ascends  behind  the  stomach,  liver,  and  heart,  between 
these  organs  and  the  spinal  column,  and  opens  into  a 
vein  behind  the  left  collar  bone.  (Fig.  18.) 

Q.  What  is  the  size  of  the  thoracic  duct  ?     Describe  its  counw 


Fig.  18. 


12 


Fig.  18.  1.  Small  intestine.  2,  2,  2.  Lacteals.  3,  3,  3.  Thoracic 
duct  4.  Stomach.  5.  Colon.  6.  Pancreas.  7.  Liver.  8,  8.  Diaphragm. 
0  Heart.  10,  10.  Lungs.  II.  Large  vein  into  which  the  thoracic  duct 
opens.  12,  12.  Spinal  column. 

74.  The  chyle  is  taken  up  by  the  lacteals  and  con- 


3£  ANATOMT,    PHYSIOLOGY,    Ai\T>    HYGIENE- 

veyed  into  the  tharacic  duct.     The  waste  matter  is  carried 
into  the  large  intestine.   (Figs.  18>  20.) 

Q.  What  becomes  of  the  chyle  ?     Of  the  waste  matter  ? 

75.  The  chyle  is  carried  through  the  thoracic  duct# 
and  is  poured  into  a  vein  at  the  lower  part  of  the  neek, 
where  it  mixes  with  the  blood.   (Fig.  18.) 

Q.  Through  what  duct  does  the  chyle  pass  ?     Into  what  is  it 
poured  1     With  what  does  it  mix  ? 

76.  The  lacteals  take  up  only  chyle  or  what  has  been 
digested.     For  this  reason,  intoxicating   drinks   should 
not  be  used,  as  they  are  not  digested. 

Q.  Why  should  not  intoxicating  drinks  be  used  ? 

EEVIEW. 

72,  7o.     .    .    Anatomy     \ 

71,  74,  75.  .    Physiology  >  of  the  LACTEALS  and  THORACIC  DUCT. 
7&      ...    Hygiene       / 

Review  by  Qifestions.  —  What  can  yon- tell  of  the  structure  of  the  lacteals  ? 
of  the  position  of  the  thoracic  duct  ?     What  can  you  say  of  the  use  of  each  ? 
REVIEW  BY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  Jaeteals  and  thoracic 
chict,  the  Physiology,  the  Hygiene-.     (See  ©utlirae  anatomical,  Plate  V.) 

LESSON   VI. 

77.  As  a  cook  collects  from  food  many  useless  pieces, 
so  in  the  economy  of  the  body  the  waste  matter  of  the 
food  is  collected  in  the  large  intestine  called  the 

Q.  Where  is  the  waste  matter  collected  ?     What  is-  this 
called? 

THE  LARGE  INTESTINE* 

78.  The  COLON  connects  with  the  small  intestine  above 

*  The  large  intestine  can  be  illustrated  hy  rising  the  corresponding 
part  of  a  pig,  or  tripe.     Outline  anatomical,  plates  aud  the 


THE    LARGE    INTESTINE.  06 

the  right  hip  bone.  It  ascends  and  crosses  under  the 
liver  and  stomach,  then  turns  downward  to  the  left  hip 
bone.  Here  the  colon  takes  another  turn  backward  and 
downward.  This  last  portion  is  called  the  rectum.  (Figs. 
19,  20.) 

Q.  Describe  the  course  of  the  colon.     What  is  the  last  portion, 
of  the  colon  called  ? 

Fig.  19. 


Fig.  19.  Thy  large  intestine  and  a  portion  of  the  small  intestine. 
5  6,  7,  8,  9.  The  Colon.  10.  The  rectum.  2,  2,  2.  Small  intestine. 
1,  1.  The  duodenum.  3  .' 

79.  The  large  intestine  has  sacs,  or  pouches.  This 
tube  is  shorter,  though  much  larger  in  diameter,  than  the 
small  intestine.  (Figs.  19,  20.) 

Q.  What  is  the  form  and  size  of  the  large  intestine  * 
(See  p.  36.) 


REVIEW    LESSON. 


Fig.  20.  An  ideal  view  of  the  organs  of  digestion,  opened  nearly  the  whole  length. 
1.  The  upper  jaw.  2.  The  lower  jaw.  3.  The  tongue.  4.  The  roof  of  the  mouth. 
5.  The  oesophagus.  6.  The  trachea.  7.  The  parotid  gland.  8.  The  sublingual  gland. 
9.  The  stomach.  10,  10.  The  liver.  11.  The  gall  cyst.  12.  The  duct  that  conveys 
the  bile  to  the  duodenum,  (13,  13.)  14.  The  pancreas.  15,  15,  15,  15.  The  small  in- 
testine. 16.  The  opening  of  *he  small  intestine  into  the  large  intestine.  17, 18, 19, 20 
The  large  intestine.  21.  The  spleen.  22.  The  upper  part  of  the  spinal  column. 

(34) 


REVIEW    OF    THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM. 


35 


Fig.  21.  Digestive  apparatus  of  a  fowJ.  1.  The  oesophagus.  2.  The  crop.  3.  The 
second  stomach.  4.  The  gizzard.  5.  The  liver.  6.  The  gall  bladder.  7.  The  bile 
ducts.  8.  The  pancreas,  9.  The  duodenum.  10.  Tlie  large  intestine.  11.  The 
two  caeca. 


SYNTHETIC  REVIEW  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE   SYSTEM. 


30,  31,  32,  35,  54,  Zo, 
36,  37,  38,  40.    . 

44,47,43 

49,  50,  51,  53,  54. .    . 
62,  63,  64,  65,  66,  67. 

72,73 

78,  79,  80 

29,  34,  37,  38,  39,  40. 

44,47,43 

51,  52,  55,  56,  57,  48. 
64,  65,  66,  67,  68,  61. 

74,75,71 

81,77 

41,42. 

45,46 

57,  58,  59,  60.  .    .    . 
67,69,70.    .    .    .    . 

76 

81,  82,  83 


Teeth, 

Salivary  glands, 
Stomach, 
Small  intestine, 
Lacteals, 
Lawe  intestine, 
Teeth, 

Sa/irary  glands, 
Stomach, 
Small  intestine, 
Lacteals, 
Large  intestine, 
Teeth, 

Salivary  glands 
Stomai-h, 
Small  intestine, 
Lacteals, 
Large  intestine, 


AXA.TOMY 


1  of  the  DIGESTIVE 
PHYSIOLOGY  V  SYSTEM.  (Figs.  20, 
21.) 


HYGIENE 


Review  by  Questions.  —  What  can  you  tell  of  the  structure  of  the  teeth 
in  man  ?  in  animals  ?  What  of  the  salivary  glands  ?  What  of  the  stom- 
ach in  man  ?  in  animals  ?  in  birds  ?  What  of  the  small  intestine  in  man  ? 
in  animals  ?  What  of  the  liver  ?  What  of  the  pancreas  ?  What  of  the 
lacteals  ?  of  the  thoracic  duct  ?  What  of  the  large  intestine  ? 

What  can  you  say  of  the  use  of  each  of  the  above-mentioned  parts  in 
man  ?  in  animals  ? 

What  can  you  relate  of  the  manner  in  •which  food  should  be  taken  ? 
What  can  you  state  of  the  means  for  preserving  health  ? 

REVIEW  BY  Topics.  —  Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  digestive  organs, 
human  and  comparative,  the  Physiology,  the  Hygiene.  (Use  outline 
anatomical,  Plate  V.) 


36  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOOY,    AND    HYGIENE, 

80.  The  colon  has  three  coats,  or  membranes,  like  the 
stomach  and  small  intestine.   (Figs.  19,  20.) 

Q.  How  many  coats  has  the  colon  ? 

81.  The  waste  matter  in  the  small  intestine  is  passed 
into  the  colon,  from  which  it  should  be  discharged  regu- 
larly, as  well   as   the   fluid  (urine)   from   the   kidneys. 
These  two  functions  of  the  system  should  not  be  neglected 
by  children  or  adults.    (Figs.  19,  20.) 

Q.  Should  the  removal  of  the  waste  matter  of  the  body  be 
neglected  ? 

S2.  To  secure  health  and  prevent  disease,  the  food, 
exercise,  and  habits  should  be  such  as  to  produce  the 
daily  removal  of  waste  matter  from  the  intestine,  (and  it 
is  better  that  it  be  at  particular  hours.) 

Q.  What  is  necessary  to  secure  health  and  prevent  disease  ? 

83.  "When,  by  accident  or  otherwise,  poisons  are  taken, 
they  should  be  removed,  or  their  action  changed  before 
they  pass  out  of  the  stomach. 

Q.  What  is  necessary  when  poisons  are  swal  lowed  ? 

Remarlc.  —  Let  the  teacher  give  oral  instruction  upon 
the  antidotes  for  poisons  and  the  means  to  remove  them 
from  the  stomach. 

(See  First  Book  on  Hygiene,  page  170,  and  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and 
Hygiene,  page  439,  by  CALVIN  CUTTER,  M.  B.) 

REVIEW. 

78,  79,  80.     .    Anatomy      J 

77,  81.      .    .    Physiology  >  of  the  LARGE  INTESTINE. 

81,  82,  83.     .    Hygiene        ) 

Review  by  Questions.  —  What  will  you  say  of  the  structure  of  the  large 
intestine  ?  What  can  you  tell  of  the  waste  matter  ?  What  can  you  state 
of  habits  ?  What  can  you  relate  of  poisons  ? 

REVIEW  BY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Anatomy  of   the  large  intestine,   the 
Physiology,  the  Hygiene.    (See  outline  anatomical,  Plate  V.)  (Review  les 
son,  see  p.  34.) 


THE   THORAX.  37 


CHAPTER    II. 

84.  IN    this   chapter    we    shall    describe   the    second 
division  of  the  "  Builders  up  "  and  "  Pullers  down  "  of 
the  body.     These  are  the  RESPIRATORY,  or  breathing  or- 
gans.    They  will  be  divided  into  four  parts.      1.  The 
chest,  that  holds  the  other  parts.     2.  The  lungs.     3.  The 
blood  vessels  of  the  lungs.     4.  Air. 

Q.  Of  what  does  the  second  chapter  treat  ?     How  is  this  chap- 
ter divided  T 

LES  SON    VII. 

85.  The    CHEST  is    formed    of  bones    and   muscles. 
These  parts  are  so  arranged  and  connected  that  the  size 
of  this  cavity  is  varied  by  their  movements.     It  also  pro- 
tects the  lungs  —  those  delicate  organs,  so  necessary  to 
life.     Anatomists  call  it  Tho'rax.  (Fig.  32.) 

Q.  How  is  the  chest  formed  ?     What  organs  does  it  protect  ? 

THE  THORAX* 

86.  The  THORAX  is  formed  of  the  ster'num,  (breast 
bone,)  in  front ;  twelve  bones  of  the  spinal  column,  (back 
bone,)  behind ;  twenty-four  ribs,  twelve  on  each  side  ; 
and  the  di'a-phragm,   (midriff,)  below.  (Figs.  22,  32.) 

Q.  What  parts  form  the  thorax,  or  chest  ?- 

87.  The  RIBS  are  united  to  the  sternum  in  front  and 

*  Use  the  ribs,  bones  of  the  spine,  and  sternum  of  animals,  with  out- 
line plates  and  the  blackboard,  to  illustrate  this  lesson.     See  Preface. 

4 


SO  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY        .ND    HYGIENE. 

to  the  bones  of  the  spinal  column  behind.     They  curve 
somewhat  like  hoops  of  a  barrel.     The  front  part,  how 
ever,  is  the  lowest.   (Fig.  22.) 

Q.  With  what  are  the  ribs  united  ?     What  is  their  form  ? 


Fig.  22. 


Fig.  23. 


Fig.  22.     A  natural  and  well-proportioned  chest. 
Fig.  23.    A  chest  fashionably  deformed. 

88.  The  upper  ribs  are  the  shortest.     This  gives  the 
chest    nearly    the    form    of    a   sugar    loaf.     Hence    the 
lower  part  of  the  chest  is  broadest.   (Fig.  22.) 

Q.   What  is  the  form  of  the  chest?     What  part  of  the  chest  is 
the  broadest  ? 

89.  The  DIAPHRAGM  (midriff)  forms  the  floor  of  the 
chest.     It  separates  the  breathing  organs  from  the  stom- 
ach and   liver.     In  form,  it  resembles  a  saucer  turned 
bottom  side  up.   (Figs.  26,  33,  50.) 

Q.  What  forms  the  floor  of  the  chest  ?     What  organs  does  the 
diaphragm  separate  1     What  is  its  form  ? 


THE    LUNGS.  39 

90.  The  chest  is  enlarged  by  the  movement  of  the 
ribs    outward   and   upward  and    by  the  movements   of 
the   diaphragm  downward.     Hence  the   clothing  about 
the   lower   part  of  the   chest  should  be  worn   loosely. 
(Figs.  26,  27.) 

Q.  How  is  the   chest   enlarged?     How  should  the  clothing 
about  the  chest  be  worn? 

91.  To  have  good  formed  chests,  the  yielding  ribs  of 
the  child  should  not  be  confined*  by  close  bands  or  any 
kind  of  tight  clothing. 

Q.  Why   should   not   the    child   wear   close  bands   or  tight 

clothing "? 

REVIEW. 

85,  86,  87,  88,  89.    .    Anatomy     \ 

80,  89,  90 Physiology  V  of  the  THORAX. 

90,  91 Hygiene       ) 

Review  by  Questions.  —  What  can  you  tell  of  the  parts  that  form  the 
thorax  ?  What  can  you  say  of  the  ribs  ?  the  diaphragm  ?  What  can  you 
relate  of  the  movements  of  these  parts  ?  of  the  clothing  ? 

RKVIKW  BY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  thorax,  the  Physi- 
ology, the  Hygiene.  (See  outline  anatomical",  Plates  I.  and  V.) 

LESSON    VIII. 

92.  The  blacksmith  makes  use  of  bellows  to  light  and 
increase  the  heat  of  the  coals  in  his  furnace.     So,  in  the 
human  system,  there  are  organs  that  act  like  bellows  to 
kindle  the  spark  of  life  and  produce  warmth.     These 
organs  are  called  Lungs. 

Q.  To  what  may  the  lungs  be  compared  1     How  do  the  lungs 
resemble  a  pair  of  bellows  ? 


THE   LUNGS.* 
93.  The  LUNGS  are  placed  in  the  chest,  and  enclosed 

*  Illustrate  this  lesson  by  using  the  trachea  and  lungs  of  a  pig,  sheep, 
calf,  or  beef,  with  outline  plates  and  the  blackboard. 


40 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE, 


by  a  thin  membrane  called  pleu'ra.  This  membrane 
also  lines  the  chest.  (Fig.  24.) 

Q.  Where  are  the  lungs  situated  ?  What  encloses  the  lungs 
and  also  lines  the  chest '? 

Remark.  —  In  pleurisy,  this  membrane  is  the  part 
diseased. 

Q.  What  part  of  the  chest  is  disease^  in  pleurisy  ? 

94.  The  lungs  are  yielding,  porous  organs,  and  will 
float  on  water.  For  this  reason  they  are  often  called 
lights.  Their  color  is  a  pinkish  gray.  (Fig.  24.) 

Q.  What  is  the  structure  of  the  lungs  ?     What  is  their  color l 


Fig.  24. 


Fig.  25. 


Fig.  24.  3,  3,  3.  The  lobes  of  the  right  lung.  4,  4.  The  lobes  of  the 
left  lung.  5,6,7.  The  heart.  9, 10,  11.  The  large  blood  vessels.  12. 
The  trachea.  15,  15,  15.  The  diaphragm. 

Fig.  25.  1.  Outline  of  right  lung.  2.  Outline  of  left  lung.  3,  4, 
Larynx  and  trachea.  5,  6,  7,  8.  Bronchial  tubes.  9,  9.  Air  cells. 

95.  Each  lung  is  divided  into  smaller  portions  called 
lobes.  The  left  lung  has  two,  and  th?  right  lung  has 
three,  lobes.  (Fig.  24.) 

Q.  How  are  the  lungs  divided  ? 


THE    LUNGS. 


41 


96.  A    large  tube  extends    from  the  mouth  to   the 
lungs.     It  is   called   Tra'che-a,  (windpipe.)  (Fig.  25.) 
Q.  What  is  the  trachea  ? 


Fig.  26. 


Fig.  27. 


Fig.  26.  A  front  view  of  the  chest  and  abdomen  in  respiration.  1,  1. 
The  position  of  the  walls  of  the  chesj  in  inspiration.  2,  2,  2.  The  po- 
sition of  the  diaphragm  in  inspiration.  3,  3.  The  position  of  the  walls 
of  the  chest  in  expiration.  4,  4,  4.  The  position  of  the  diaphragm  in 
expiration.  5,  5.  The  position  of  the  walls  of  the  abdomen  in  inspira- 
tion. 6,  6.  The  position  of  the  abdominal  walls  in  expiration. 

Fig.  27.  A  side  view  of  the  chest  and  abdomen  in  respiration.  1.  The 
cavity  of  the  chest.  2.  The  cavity  of  the  abdomen.  3.  The  line  of  di- 
rection for  the  diaphragm  when  relaxed  in  expiration.  4.  The  line  of 
direction  for  the  diaphragm  when  contracted  in  inspiration.  5,  6.  The 
position  of  the  front  walls  of  the  chest  and  abdomen  in  inspiration.  7,  8. 
The  position  of  the  front  walls  of  the  abdomen  and  chest  in  expiration. 


42  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

97.  The  TRACHEA  divides  and  subdivides  in  the  lungs 
until  the  tubes  are  no  larger  than  small  hairs.     These 
divisions    are    called    Bronch'i-ce,    or    bronchial    tubes. 
(Fig.  25.) 

Q.   What  is  said  of  the  trachea  ?     Bronchia;  ? 

98.  The   BRONCHIJE    terminate    in    small    sacs  called 
air  cells.  (Fig.  25.) 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  air  cells  ? 

Remark.  —  The  trachea  may  be  compared  to  the 
trunk  of  a  tree,  the  bronchia?  to  the  branches,  and  the 
air  cells  to  the  leaf  buds. 

Q.  To  what  may  the  tubes  and  air  cells  of  the  lungs  be  com- 
pared ? 

99.  When  we  breathe,  the  air  rushes  into  the  air  cells 
through  the  mouth,  trachea,  and  bronchial  tubes.     This 
is  called  inspiration.     The  air  also  passes  out  of  the  air 
cells  through   the  same  tubes  and  the  mouth.      This  is 
called  expiration.  (Figs.  26,  27.) 

Q.  Define  and  explain  inspiration  ?  Define  and  explain 
expiration  ? 

100.  When    air   passes   into  the  lungs,  the   ribs  are 
raised  and  the  diaphragm  sinks ;  consequently  the  chest 
becomes  larger.     When  the  air  passes  from  the  lungs,  the 
diaphragm  is  raised  and  the  ribs  are  depressed ;  this  les- 
sens the  size  of  the  chest.     These  two  movements  united 
are  called  respiration,  or  breathing.   (Figs.  26,  27.) 

Q.  Define  and  explain  respiration  ? 

REVIEW. 

93,  94,  95,  96,  97,  98.     Anatomy     - 

92,  99,  100 Physiology  \  of  the  LUNGS. 

Hygiene       } 

Renew  by  Questions.  —  What  will  you  state  of  the  position  and  structure 
of  the  lungs  ?  What  will  you  say  of  the  trachea  ?  of  the  bronchia;  ?  of  the 
air  cells  ?  What  will  you  tell  of  the  movement  and  use  of  these  parts  ? 

REVIEW  BY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  lungs,  the  Physiology, 
che  Hygiene.  (See  outline  anatomical,  Plate  V.) 


PULMONIC    CIRCULATION.  43 


LESSON    IX. 

101.  To  preserve  the  life  of  mail  and  other  animals,  a 
fluid  called  blood  flows  through  their  bodies.     As  good 
blood  only  gives  health  and  vigor,  we  find  that  the  Cre- 
ator has  made  organs  to  keep  pure. this  lifegiving  fluid. 
In  the  insect,  it  is  purified  in  the  skin ;  in  the  fish,  in 
the  gills  ;  in  the  inferior  animals  and  man,  in  the  blood 
vessels  of  the  lungs.  (Figs.  34,  A,  B,  p.  48.) 

Q.  What  is  necessary  to  preserve  the  life  of  man  and  animals  ? 
Name  how  the  blood  is  purified  in  the  insect,  in  the  fish;  in  the 
inferior  animals,  and  man. 

PULMONIC   CIRCULATION* 

102.  Through  the  body  generally  there  are  three  sets 
of  tubes,  or  blood  vessels,  called  ar'te-ries,  veins,  and 
cap'il-la-ries.  (Figs.  28,  29,  31,  39,  40,  41.; 

Q.   What  are  the  blood  vessels  of  the  body  called  ? 

103.  ARTERIES  are  the  tubes  that  convey  the  blood 
from  the  heart  to  all  parts  of  the  body.   (Figs.  28,  39.) 

Q.  Describe  arteries  ? 

104.  VEINS  are  the  tubes  that  convey  the  blood  to 
the  heart  from  all  parts  of  the  body.   (Figs.  29,  40.) 

Q.  Describe  veins. 

105.  The  PULMONARY  ARTERY  proceeds  from  the  right 
side  of  the  heart.      It  divides  into  two  branches,  which 
are  spread  through  the  right  and  left  lung.     Through  this 
artery  and  its  branches,  the  blood  from  the  heart  flows 
to  the  lungs.  (Fig.  28.) 

Q.  Describe  the  pulmonary  artery.     What  is  its  use  ? 

*  Illustrate  this  lesson  by  using  the  heart  of  domestic  animals,  01^ 
line  plates,  and  the  blackl>o:i;vl. 


44  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

106.  The  PULMONARY  VEINS  commence  in  the  capilla- 
ries of   the  lungs.     They  unite   and  reunite   until  one 
vein  is  formed  in  each  lung,    these    open    into  the  left 
side  of  the  heart.  (Fig.  29.)     Through  these  veins  the 
blood  from  the  lungs  flows  to  the  heart. 

Q.  Describe  the  pulmonary  veins.     What  are  their  use? 

107.  CAPILLARIES  are  haiiiike  vessels,  placed  between 
the  arteries  and  veins.     In  the  lungs,  they  form  a  net- 
work over  the  air  cells.     In  these  tubes  the  blood  is  pu- 
rified.  (Figs.  30,  31.) 

Q.  What   are   the   capillaries'?     What  do   they  form  in  the 
lungs  ?     Where  is  the  blood  purified  ? 

Fig.  28.  Fig.  29. 


Fig.  28.  1.  Left  auricle.  2.  Eight  auricle.  3.  Left  ventricle.  4. 
Right  ventricle.  5,  5.  Pulmonary  artery.  6.  Trachea. 

Fig.  29.  1.  Right  auricle.  2.  Left  auricle.  3.  Right  A'entricle.  4. 
Left  ventricle.  5,  5.  Right  and  left  pulmonary  veins.  6.  6.  Right  and 
left  lung. 

REVIEW. 

102,  103,  104,  105,  106,  107.    Anatomy     ^ 

101,  103,  104,  105,  106,  107.    Physiology  >  of  the  PULMONIC  CIRCULATION. 
Hygiene      j 

Review  by  Questions.  —  What  can  you  say  of  arteries,  veins,  and  capil- 
laries ?  What  can  you  tell  of  the  pulmonic  artery  ?  of  the  pulmonic  vein  ? 
of  the  pulmonic  capillaries  ? 

REVIEW  BY  TOPICS. — State  the  Anatomy  of  the  pulmonic  circulation, 
the  Physiology,  the  Hygiene.  (See  outline  anatomical,  Plate  VII.) 


AIR. 


45 


LESSON    X. 

108.  For  man  to  live,  it  is  necessary  that  the  blood 
which   is  carried   to   the  lungs  be   changed.     For   this 
purpose,  we  find  the  before-described,  simple,  and  beau- 
tiful arrangement.      This  change  is  directly  effected  by 
a  fluid  called  air. 

AIR.* 

109.  Pure   AIR,  or   the  invisible  substance  that  we 
breathe,  contains  one  part  of  ox'y-gen  to  nearly  four  parts 
of   ni'tro-gen.     This  is   suited  to   our  wants.     It  was 
provided  by  our  Creator  when  he  breathed  into  us  the 
"breath  of  life." 

Q.  Of  what  is  pure  air  composed  ? 


Fig.  30. 


Fig.  31 


Fig.  30.  1.  A  bronchial  tube,  divided  into  three  branches.  2,  2, 2.  Air 
cells.  3.  Branches  of  the  pulmonary  artery  that  spread  over  the  air  cells. 
Through  the  pulmonary  artery,  the  dark,  impure  blood  is  carried  to  the 
air  cells  of  the  lungs.  4.  Branches  of  the  pulmonary  vein,  that  com- 
mence at  the  minute  terminations  of  the  pulmonary  artery.  Through 
the  pulmonary  vein  the  red  blood  is  returned  to  the  heart. 

Fig.  31.  Capillary  blood  vessels  represented,  magnified,  as  they  are 
spread  over  the  air  cells. 

*  Illustrate  this  lesson  by  outline  diagrams  and  by  performing  the 
experiments. 


46  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

110.  The  impure  blood,  while  in  the  capillary  vessels 
of  the  lungs,  receives   oxygen  from  the  air  in  the   air 
cells  ;  and  the  air  in  the  air  cells  receives  carbonic  acid 
from  the  blood  in  the  capillary  vessels.   (Figs.  30,  31.) 

Q.  How  does  the  blood  receive  oxygen  from  the  air  ?  What 
is  received  in  the  air  cells  of  the  lungs'? 

Observation.  —  In  hemorrhage,  or  bleeding  of  the 
lungs,  it  is  rarely  that  a  blood  vessel  is  broken ;  but  the 
blood  oozes  through  the  thin  walls  of  the  capillary  ves- 
sels into  the  air  cells  —  passes  into  the  bronchial  tubes, 
trachea,  and  mouth. 

Q.  What  is  said  of  bleeding  of  the  lungs '? 

111.  When   the  blood  parts  with   carbonic  acid  gas 
and  receives  oxygen,  its  color  is  changed  from  a  bluish 
/me  to  a  scarlet  red,  and  its  properties  are  also  altered. 
(Fig.  30.) 

Q.  What  changes  the  color  and  properties  of  the  blood  ? 

Experiment.  —  To  show  that  carbonic  acid  exists  in 
the  air  expelled  from  the  lungs,  put  a  small  piece  of 
lime  into  a  cup  of  water ;  let  a  pupil  breathe  into  it,  and 
soon  the  water  will  become  whitish,  because  the  carbonic 
acid  in  the  breath  has  united  with  the  lime  dissolved  in 
the  water  and  formed  carbonate  of  lime,  (chalk.) 

Q.  How  can  it  be  shown  that  carbonic  acid  exists  in  the  ex- 
pired air  ? 

112.  AIR,  that  has  lost  a  portion  of  its  oxygen  and 
contains  carbonic  acid,  injures  the  health,  because  it  does 
not  purify  the  blood  in  the  lungs,  by  removing  the  worn- 
out  atoms  of  the  body,  in  the  capillary  blood  vessels. 

Q.  Explain  how  impure  air  injures  the  health. 

Remark.  —  Pure  air  is  as  necessary  to  domestic  ani- 
mals as  to  man.  Sheep  confined  in  impure  air  become 
diseased  of  what  is  called  "  the  rot." 


AIR.  47 

Q.  What  is  said  of  pure  air  for  domestic  animals  ? 

Experiment. — Breathe  into  a  glass  jar  until  the  pure 
air  is  displaced  by  the  air  from  the  lungs.;  then  sink  a 
lighted  candle  into  the  vessel,  and  it  will  be  extinguished. 

Q.  Ho\v  can  you  show  the  presence  of  carbonic  acid  in  the 
breath  ? 

Observation.  — It  is  not  safe  to  enter  a  well,  or  vault, 
where  a  lighted  candle  will  not  burn. 
Q.  What  observation  in  this  connection  ? 

113.  All    rooms    should   be    ventilated,    particularly 
school  houses  and  sleeping  rooms.     Those  persons  that 
breathe  the  purest  air   are  the  most  free  from  coughs, 
colds,  scrofula,  and  consumption. 

Q.  Why  should  rooms  be  ventilated  ?  What  persons  are  most 
free  from  coughs,  £c.  ? 

1 14.  When  persons  are  apparently  drowned,  they  can 
be  recovered  by  forcing  air  into  the  lungs  and  pressing 
it  out  again,  thus  imitating  natural  breathing. 

Q.  How  should  persons  apparently  drowned  be  treated  ? 

Remark.  —  Let  the  teacher  instruct  every  pupil  how 
to  recover  asphyxiated  persons.  (See  CUTTER'S  Anat- 
omy, Physiology,  and  Hygiene,  page  249.) 

REVIEW. 

Anatomy     ~\ 

108,  109,  110,  111.     .    Physiology  £  of  the  Am. 
108,  112,  113,  114.     .    Hygiene      > 

Review  by  Questions.  —  What  can  you  say  of  the  air  ?  How  is  the  blood 
changed,  and  where  ?  What  can  you  tell  of  oxygen  ?  What  is  the  effect 
of  carbonic  acid  ?  How  can  you  show  this  ?  What  can  you  state  of  the 
effects  of  impure  air  ?  What  can  you  tell  of  ventilation  ?  How  should 
persons  apparently  drowned  be  treated  ? 

REVIEW  BY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Physiology  of  Lesson  X.,  the  Hygiene. 


Fig.  34. 


Fig.  A. 


Fig.  32  represents  the  thorax,  enclosing  the  lungs  and  heart.  S.  The  sternun.. 
C,  C.  The  two  clavicles.  T.  The  trachea.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10.  The  ribs.  H. 
The  heart.  L,  L.  The  right  and  left  lung. 

Fig.  33.  1.  The  larynx.  2.  The  trachea.  3,  3,  3.  The  right  lung.  4.  The  right 
bronchia.  5.  The  left  bronchia.  6.  6,  C.  The  air  cells.  15,  15,  15.  The  diaphragm. 

Fig.  34.  An  ideal  view  of  the  pulmonic  circulation.  1, 1.  The  right  lung.  2,  2. 
The  left  lung.  3.  The  trachea.  4.  The  right  bronchial  tube.  5.  The  left  bronchial 
tube.  6,  6, 6,  6  Air  cells.  7.  The  right  auricle.  8.  The  right  ventricle.  9.  Th« 
tricuspid  valves.  10.  The  pulmonic  artery.  11.  The  branch  to  the  right  lung.  12. 
The  branch  to  tho  left  lung.  13.  The  right  pulmonic  vein.  14.  The  left  pulmoniv 
vein.  15.  The  left  auricle.  16.  The  left  ventricle.  17.  The  mitral  valve*. 


*          XSVIEW    OF   THE    RESPIRATORY    SYSTEM.  49 

*1g.  A.  An  ideal  plan  of  the  pulmonic  circulation  of  a  frog.  1.  The  pericardium. 
"2  The  single  ventricle,  from  which  blood  passes  to  both  the  lungs  and  body.  3.  The 
Tight  auricle  that  receives  blood  from  the  body.  4.  The  left  auricle  that  receives  blood 
from  the  lungs.  The  arrows  indicate  the  direction  of  the  blood. 

Fig.  B.  An  ideal  plan  of  the  pulmonic  (gill)  circulation  of  a  fish.  1.  The  pericar- 
dium. 2.  The  single  auricle.  3.  Tb«  single  ventricle.  4.  The  vessel  that  conveys 
the  blood  from  the  ventricle  to  tke  gills.  5.  The  vessel  tlutt  conveys  the  blood  from  tbe 
gills  to  the  body  of  the  Ash. 


SYNTHETIC  REVIEW  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY    SYSTEM. 


86,87,88,89,85,    ,    .    .     Thorax, 

93,94,95,96,97,98.   .     .    Lungs, 

102,  103,  104,  105,  106,  107-    Pulmonic  -circulation, 


89,90,80.       ..... 

103,  104,  105,  106,  107,  101.  Pulmonic  circulation,  f  **  *  ' 

109,  110,  111,  108.    .    .    .    Air, 

90,91  .......     Thorax,  ~ 


Pulmonic  circulation, 
112,  113,  114,  108,    .,.    Air, 


Review  by  Questions.  —  What  can  you  say  of  the  parts  of  the  thorax  ? 
What  can  you  tell  of  the  structure  of  the  ribs  ?  of  the  diaphragm  ?  What 
can  you  state  of  the  anatomy  of  the  lungs  ?  of  the  trachea  ?  of  the  bronchiae  ? 
of  the  air  cells  ?  What  can  be  said  of  the  structure  and  distribution  of  the 
pulmonic  artery  ?  of  the  pulmonic  vein  ?  of  the  pulmonic  capillary  vessels  ? 

What  can  yon  tell  of  the  use  of  each  of  the  above-named  parts  ?  What 
can  you  say  of  the  air  ? 

How  is  health  preserved  ?  How  may  apparently  drowned  persons  be 
recovered  ? 

REVIEW  BY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  respiratory  system,  the 
Physiology,  the  Hygiene.  (Use  outline  anatomical,  Plates  I.,  V.,  VII.) 

5 


50  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


CHAPTER    III. 

THE  CIRCULATORY  SYSTEM  embraces  the  heart,  the  ai> 
teries,  and  veins  of  the  lungs,  together  with  the  arteries 
and  veins  of  the  general  system.  (Fig.  C,  p.  64.) 

Q.  What  does  the  circulatory  system  embrace  1 

LESSON    XI. 

115.  In  many  cities  pipes  are  laid  under  the  streets, 
through  which  water  runs  to  every  house  from  a  large 
cistern,  or  reservoir.     When  the  water  has  supplied  the 
wants  of  the  people,  another  set  of  pipes  carries  it  away. 
So  in  the  body  there  are  two  sets  of  tubes  (veins  and 
arteries)  that  carry  blood  to  and  from  the  organ  called 
the  heart.  (Figs.  28,  29,  39,  40.) 

Q.  How  is  the  human  body  supplied  with  blood  ? 

THE  HEART.* 

116.  The  HEART  inclines  to  the  left  side  of  the  chest, 
and  is  placed  between  the   lungs.     The    point    of  the 
heart  is  directed  downward,  and  rests  on  the  diaphragm, 
(Fig.  50.) 

Q.  Where  is  the  heart  placed  ?     Upon  what  does  it  rest  ? 

117.  The  heart  is  enclosed  in  a  firm  membrane  called 
per-i-car'di-um,  (heart  case.)  (Fig.  35.) 

Q.  What  encloses  the  heart  ? 

118.  The  substance  of  the  heart  is  a  mass  of  flesh, 

*  Illustrate  this  lesson  by  using  the  hearts  of  animals,  birds,  and  fishes, 
with  outline  diagrams  and  the  blackboard.  (See  Preface.) 


THE   HEART. 


51 


so  arranged  as  to  form  two  sides  and  four  cavities. 
(Fig.  36.) 

Q.  Of  what  is  the  heart  composed  !     How  is  it  arranged  ? 

119.  The  two  upper  cavities  are  called  au'ri-chs^ 
(deaf  ears.)  The  two  lower  cavities  are  called  ventri- 
cles. Thus  we  have  a  right  and  left  auricle,  and  a  right 
and  left  ventricle.  (Fig.  36.) 

Q.  What  are  the  cavities  of  the  heart  called  ?     Describe  them. 


Fig.  35. 


Fig.  36. 


Fig.  35.  1,1.  Right  and  left  auricle.  2,  2.  Right  and  left  ventricle. 
3,  4.  The  pericardium.  5,  6.  Large  blood  vessels,  (arteries.) 

Fig.  36.  Ideal  heart.  1.  Right  auricle.  2.  Right  ventricle.  9.  Left 
auricle.  10.  Left  ventricle.  17.  Tri-cuspid  valves.  19.  Mitral  valves. 

120.  The  AURICLES  receive  blood  from  the  body  and 
from  the  lungs.     The  VENTRICLES  send  blood  to  the  body 
and  lungs.  (Figs.  28,  29,  39,  40.) 

Q.  What  is  the  use  of  the  auricles  ?     Of  the  ventricles  1 

121.  In  the  MAMMALIA,  as  the  horse,  ox,  &c.,  the 
heart  has  four  cavities,  two  auricles,  two  ventricles,  and 
valves,  as  in  man.  (Fig.  36.) 

Q.  Describe  the  heart  of  the  mammalia,  as  the  horse. 


52  AN  ATOM  Y,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE, 

122.  In  the  AMPHIBIA  and  perfect  reptiles,  as  the  frog 
and  snake,  the  heart  has  three  cavities,  two  auricles,  and 
one  ventricle.     One  auricle  receives  blood  from  the  sys- 
tem, the  other  from    the   lungs.     The  ventricle   sends 
blood  both  to  the  system  and  the  lungs.   (Figs.  37,  44.) 

Q.  Describe  the  circulation  of  frogs  and  snakes. 

123.  FISHES  have  a  distinct  heart,  with  but  one  au- 
ricle and  one  ventricle.     The  auricle  receives  blood  from 
the  body.     The  ventricle  sends  it  to  the  gills.     From 
the  gills  it  is  carried  to  the  body.   (Figs.  38,  45.) 

Q.  Describe  the  circulation  of  fishes  ? 

Fig.  37.  Fig.  38. 


Fig.  37.  Ideal  plan  of  the  heart  of  a  frog.  1.  The  pericardium,  (heart 
case.)  2.  The  single  ventricle.  3.  The  auricle  that  receives  blood  from 
the  lungs.  4.  The  auricle  that  receives  blood  from  the  body.  The 
arrows  show  the  direction  of  the  blood. 

Fig.  38.  Ideal  plan  of  the  heart  of  the  fish.  1.  The  pericardium. 
2.  The  ventricle  that  receives  blood  from  the  body.  3.  The  ventricle 
that  sends  blood  to  the  gills. 

124.  INSECTS  have  no  heart ;  but  they  have  a  central 
pulsating  vessel. 

Q.  Describe  the  circulation  of  insects. 

125.  The  size  of  the  heart  varies  in  different  persons. 
It  weighs  about  eight  and  a  half  ounces.     Each  cavity 
in  an  adult  holds  about  half  a  gill  of  blood. 

Q.  What  is  the  size  of  the  heart  ? 


SYSTEMIC    CIRCULATION.  53 

126.  Between  the  cavities  of  each  side  of  the  heart 
there  are  thin  membranes  called  valves.  Those  in  the 
right  side  are  called  tri-cus'pid  valves  ;  those  in  the 
left  side,  mi'tral  valves.  These  valves  allow  the  blood 
to  pass  only  in  one  direction  —  from  the  auricles  into 
the  ventricles.  (Fig.  36.) 

Q.  What  is  placed  between  the  cavities  of  the  heart  ?  What 
is  the  name  of  those  in  the  right  side  of  the  heart  ?  la  the  left 
side  ?  What  is  the  use  of  these  valves  ? 

REVIEW. 

115,  116,  117,  118,  119, 121,  122,  123,  124,  125.     .    Anatomy      • 

119,120,122,123,126 Physiology  [  of  the  HEABT. 

Hygiene       J 

Review  by  Questions.  —  What  can  you  say  of  the  position  and  substance  of  the 
human  heart?  What  of  the  auricles  ?  of  the  ventricles?  of  the  valves?  What  can 
you  state  of  the  heart  of  animals?  of  reptiles?  of  fishes?  of  insects?  What  can  you 
tell  of  the  use  of  the  auricle?  of  the  ventricle?  of  the  valves?  What  can  you  state 
of  the  use  of  the  different  parts  of  the  heart  in  animals  ?  in  reptiles?  in  fishes  ? 

REVIEW  BY  Tories.  —  Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  heart,  human  and  comparative, 
the  Physiology,  the  Hygiene.  (See  outline  anatomical,  Plate  VI.) 

LESSON    XII. 

127.  In  those  cities  that  receive  their  supply  of  water 
from  a  reservoir,  care  is  taken  that  every  family  may 
have  its  needful  quantity.     Thus  in  the  human  body, 
every  organ  receives  its  due  supply  of  blood ;  and  the 
distribution  of  the  lifegiving  fluid  is  called  the  systemic 
circulation.  (Figs.  39,  40,  41,  42.) 

Q.  What  is  the  distribution  of  blood  throughout  the  body 
called? 

SYSTEMIC   CIRCULATION* 

128.  The  SYSTEMIC  CIRCULATION  consists  of  the  a-ort'n 
and    branches,    ve'na    ca'va    and   branches,    capillaries. 

*  Illustrate  this  lesson  by  using  the  heart  and  blood  vessels  of  domes- 
tic animals,  outline  diagrams,  and  blackboard. 

5* 


54 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


ve'na  por'ta,  lac'te-als,  and  ab-sorb'ents.  (Figs.  39,  40 
41,  42.) 

Q.  Name  the  vessels  which  comprise  the  systemic  circulation 

Fig.  39.  Fig.  40. 


Fig.  39.  1.  Left  ventricle  of  the  heart.  2,  3.  Aorta.  5,  5.  Arteries 
that  extend  to  the  lower  extremities.  6,  6.  Arteries  of  the  neck.  7,  7.  Ar- 
teries of  the  arms. 

Fig.  40.  1.  Right  auricle  of  the  heart.  2,  3.  Large  veins  that  open 
into  the  right  auricle.  4,  4.  Veins  of  the  lower  extremities.  5,  5.  Veins 
of  the  arms.  6.  Veins  of  the  neck.  The  arrows  show  the  direction  that 
the  blood  flows. 


SYSTEMIC   CIRCULATION.  55 

129.  The  AORTA,  or  large  artery,  arises  from  the  left 
ventricle  of  the  heart,  and  its  branches  extend  to  every 
part  of  the  body.     Through  these  vessels  the  purified 
blood  flows  to  the  systemic  capillaries.  (Fig.  39.) 

Q.  Through  what  vessels  does  the  blood  flow  to  every  part  ol 
the  body  ? 

130.  At  the  commencement  of  the  aorta  are  three 
valves,  called  sem-i-lu'nar      These    prevent   the    blood 
returning  to  the  heart.  (Fig.  39.) 

Q.  Where  are  the  semilunar  valves,  and  what  is  their  use  I 

131.  The  SYSTEMIC  VEINS  commence  in  the  capillaries 
of  the  body.     They  unite  and  reunite  until  two  large 
veins  are  formed,  (called  vena  cava,  ascending  and  de- 
scending.)    These   open  into  the  right   auricle  of  the 
heart.     The  blood  from  all  parts  of  the  body  flows  to 
the  heart  through  these  veins.    (Fig.  40.) 

Q.  Describe  the  systemic  veins.     What  is  their  use  1 

132.  The  CAPILLARY  VESSELS  of  the  body  resettible 
in  structure    the   capillaries  of  the    lungs.     They  also 
connect  the  minute   arteries   and  veins.     They  receive 
red  blood  from  the  arteries  and  impart  dark  blood  to  the 
veins.  (Fig.  41.) 

Q.  Describe  the  capillary  vessels.     What  do  they  connect  1 
What  do  they  receive  ?     What  do  they  impart  to  the  veins  ? 

133.  The  VENA  PORTA  is  formed  of  veins  from  the 
stomach,    spleen,   pancreas,    small    and   large   intestine. 
By  this  vein  the  blood  is  conveyed  into  and   distributed 
through  the  liver.     This  is  called  the  portal  circulation. 

Q.  Of  what  is  the  vena  porta  composed  ?     What  is  the  use 
of  this  vessel  1     What  is  this  circulation  called? 

134.  The   LACTEAL  VESSELS   commence  in  the  small 
intestine.     They    open    into    the    thoracic    duct.     This 


56  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE, 

opens  into  a  systemic  vein.  The  chyle,  or  the  nourish- 
ing part  of  the  food,  is  conveyed  into  the  veins  by  these 
vessels.  (Fig.  4£.) 

Q.  Where  do  the  lacteal  vessels  commence,  and  into  what  do 
they  open  1  Into  what  does  the  thoracic  duct  open  ?  Where  is 
the  chyle  conveyed  1 

Fig.  41. 


Pig.  41.    Ideal  plan  of  capillary  vessels.     I.  An  artery.    2.  A  veib, 
3,  3.  Capillary  vessels.    The  arrows  show  the  direction  of  the  blood. 


135.  The  ABSORBENTS  are  minute  vessels  that  open 
into  the  thoracic  duct  and  into  veins  directly.     They  are 
found  in  every  part  of  the  body  except  the  brain.     They 
convey  lymph  and  waste  matter  into  the  systemic  veins. 
(Fig.  42.) 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  absorbents  ?     What  is  their  use  ? 

136.  The  blood  that  is  carried  by  the  veins  into  the 
right  auricle  of  the  heart  is  composed  of  materials  re- 
ceived from  the  capillaries,  the  lacteals,  and  the  absorb- 
ents. (Figs.  40,  41,  42.) 

Q.  Of  what  is  the  blood  in  the  veins  composed  1 


SYSTEMIC   CIRCULATION. 


57 


Pig.  42.  1,  1.  The  absorbents  of  the  lower  extremities.  2.  The  small  intestine 
3.  The  lacteals.  4,  4.  The  thoracic  duct  5,  5,  5.  Absorbent  ducts.  6,  6.  Absorb- 
ents of  the  arms.  7.  Absorbents  of  the  neck.  8.  A  large  vein  that  opens  into  the 
right  auricle  of  the  heart.  9.  The  right  auricle.  10,  10.  The  diaphragm.  (See  p.  60.; 


58 


REVIEW    LESSON. 
Fig.  43.  Fig.  44. 


Fig.  43.  An  ideal  view  of  the  circulation  in  the  lungs  and  system.  From  the  right 
ventricle  of  the  heart,  (2,)  the  dark,  impure  blood  is  forced  into  the  pulmonary  artery, 
(3,)  and  its  branches  (4,  5)  carry  the  blcod  to  the  left  and  right  lung.  In  the  capil- 
lary vessels  (fi,  6)  of  the  lungs  the  blood  becomes  pure,  or  of  a  red  color,  and  in 
returned  to  the  left  auricle  of  the  heart  (9)  by  the  veins,  (7,  8.)  From  the  left  auricle 
the  pure  blood  passes  into  the  left  ventricle,  (10.)  By  a  forcible  contraction  of  the 
left  ventricle  of  the  heart,  the  blood  is  thrown  into  the  aorta,  (II.)  Its  branches  (12, 
1H,  13)  carry  the  pure  blood  to  every  organ  or  part  of  the  body.  The  divisions^  and 
subdivisions  of  the  aorta  terminate  in  capillary  vessels,  represented  by  14,  14.  In 
these  hairlike  vessels  the  blood  becomes  dark  colored,  and  is  returned  to  the  right 
auricle  of  the  heart  (1)  by  the  vena  cava  descendens,  (15,)  and  vena  cava  ascendens 
(16.)  The  tricuspid  valves  (17)  prevent  the  reflow  of  the  blood  from  the  right  ven- 
tricle to  the  right  auricle.  The  semilunar  valves  (18)  prevent  the  blood  flowing  from 


REVIEW    OF    THE    CIRCULATORY    SYSTEM. 


59 


Hie  pulmonary  artery  to  the  right  ventricle.  The  mitral  valves  (19)  prevent  the  reflow 
of  olood  from  the  left  ventricle  to  the  left  auricle.  The  semilunar  valves  (20)  prevent 
the  reflow  of  blood  from  the  aorta  to  the  left  ventricle.  The  left  ventricle,  aorta  and 
branches,  vena  cavas  and  branches,  capillaries,  lacteals,  and  absorbents,  with  the  right 
auricle,  compose  the  systemic  circulation.  (Figs  36,39,40,41,42,43.)  The  rightven- 
tricle,  pulmonary  artery  and  branches,  capillaries,  pulmonary  veins,  and  left  auricle, 
compose  the  pulmonic  circulation.  (Figs.  28.  29,  30,  43.) 

Fig.  44  An  ideal  plan  of  the  circulation  of  a  frog.  1.  The  pericardium.  2.  The 
single  ventricle,  from  which  blood  passes  to  both  the  lungs  and  body.  3.  The  right 
auricle  that  receives  blood  from  the  body.  4.  The  left  auricle  that  receives  blood  from 
the  lungs.  The  arrows  indicate  the  direction  of  the  blood. 

Fig.  45.  An  ideal  plan  of  the  circulation  of  a  fish.  1.  The  pericardium.  2.  Tho 
single  auricle.  3.  The  single  ventricle.  4.  The  vessel  that  conveys  the  blood  from 
the  ventricle  to  the  gills.  5.  The  vessel  that  conveys  the  blood  from  the  gills  to  the 
body  of  the  fish.  6.  The  vessel  that  conveys  the  blood  from  the  body  to  the  heart. 
The  arrows  show  the  direction  of  the  blood. 


SYNTHETIC  REVIEW  OF  THE  CIRCULATORY  SYSTEM 


115, 
121, 
127, 
132, 
102, 
107. 
119, 
124, 
127, 
133. 
103, 

139. 


116,  117,  118,  119. 
122,  123,  124.  12o. 


Heart, 

128,'  129,'  130,  131,  )  I 

133    134    13-"  )  Systentic  circulation,    ^AKATOMT 

l()3i  104,'  105,  106,  ; 

^  Pulmonic  circulation,  j 

120,  121,  122,  123,  )  ) 

126 $  Heart, 

129,  130,  131,  132,  >  >pHY8ioi,oor 

i  Q4  IQ^  i Q«  i^7i7fi\  Systcnitc  circulation^    \ 

lO'ijIOOjlODjiO/^XOO.  J 

104,  105,  106,  107.    Pulmonic  circulation,) 
Heart,  i 

Systemic  circulation,   >  HTOIEKK 

Pulmonic  circulation,  } 


of  the  CIRCU 
LATORY  SYS- 
TEM. (Figs.  43, 
44,45.) 


Review  by  Questions.  —  What  are  the  parts  of  the  heart  in  man  ?  in/animals?  in 
perfect  reptiles  ?  in  fishes  ?  What  can  you  tell  of  the  auricle  ?  of  the  ventricle?  of  the 
valves  ?  What  are  the  parts  of  the  systemic  circulation  ?  What  can  you  say  of  the 
structure  of  the  aorta  and  branches  ?  of  the  vena  cava  and  branches  ?  of  the  systemic 
capillaries?  of  the  vena  porta  ?  of  the  lacteals  and  thoracic  duct?  of  the  absorbents? 
What  are  the  parts  of  the  pulmonic  circulation?  What  can  you  say  of  the  pulmonic 
artery?  of  the  pulmonic  veins?  of  the  pulmonic  capillaries?  What  parts  of  the  heart 
are  connected  with  the  pulmonic  circulation  ?  with  the  systemic  circulation  ? 

What  can  you  say  of  the  use  of  the  before-mentioned  parts  ?  Where  and  in  what 
vessels  is  the  blood  purified  ?  Where  and  by  what  vessels  is  the  system  built  up  ? 
How  is  it  pulled  down  ? 

What  ran  you  say  of  the  preservation  of  health  ?  of  the  prevention  of  disease  ?  of 
the  treatment  of  asphyxia?  of  bleeding  from  divided  arteries? 

REVIEW  BT  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  circulatory  system,  the  Physiology 
the  Hygiene.  (Use  outline  anatomical,  Plate*  V.,  VL,  VII.) 


60  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE, 

137.  The   different  parts  of  the  body,  as  fat, 
muscle,  brain,  bone,  &c.,  are  made  from  the  blood  by  the 
action  of  the  systemic  capillary  vessels. 

Q.  What  is  the  use  of  the  systemic  capillary  vessels  ? 

138.  The  waste,  wornout  atoms  are  removed  from  the 
body  by  the  skin,  lungs,  liver,  kidneys,  pancreas,  and 
salivary  glands.     These  are  the  "  pullers  down  "  of  the 
system. 

Q.  How  are  the  waste  atoms  removed  1 

139.  If  a  large  artery  is  cut  and  the  blood  flows  fast, 
pressure    should  be  made  by  the  finger  or  a  compress 
on  the  wounded  artery  until  a  physician  can  be  called.* 

Q.  How  should  bleeding  be  treated  ? 

(For  PULMONARY  CIRCULATION,  see  Lesson  IX.) 

REVIEW. 

127,  128,  129,  130,  131,  132,  133,  134,  135.  .  .  .  Anatomy  }  of  the  SYS- 
127,  129,  130,  131,  132,  133,  134,  135,  136,137,  138.  Physiology  V  TEMIC  Cm- 
139  .................  Hygiene  j  CULATION. 

Review  by  Questions.  —  What  are  the  parts  of  the  systemic  circulation  ? 
What  is  the  anatomy  of  the  aorta  and  branches  ?  of  the  vena  cava  and 
branches  ?  of  the  systemic  capillaries  ?  of  the  vena  porta  ?  of  the  lacteals  ? 
of  the  absorbents  ?  What  is  the  use  of  the  aorta  and  branches  ?  of  the  vena 
cava  and  branches  ?  of  the  vena  porta  ?  of  the  lacteals  ?  of  the  absorbents  ? 
What  can  you  tell  of  the  building  up  of  the  system  ?  of  the  pulling  doAvn 
of  the  body  ?  How  should  bleeding  from  a  divided  artery  be  treated  ? 

REVIEW  BY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  systemic  circulation, 
the  Physiology,  the  Hygiene.     (See  outline  anatomical,  Plate  VI.) 
JLissox.  —  (See  p.  58.) 


*  Let  pupils  be  instructed  in  the  treatment  of  wounds  and  stoppage 
of  blood.  (See  CUTTER'S  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Hygiene,  page 
175.) 


VOCAL   ORGANS.  61 


LESSON   XIII. 

140.  Many  kinds  of  musical  instruments  have  been 
made  ;  but  none  compare  in  simplicity  of  structure  to 
the  organs  of  speech.     No  instrument  can  produce  sounds 
so  varied  and  sweet  as  the  human  voice.     These  ever- 
varying  notes  are  the  result  of  the  training  of  small 
muscles,  over  which  the  reader,  orator,  and  singer  should 
have  a  quick  as  well  as  perfect  control.     A  knowledge 
of  the  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Hygiene  of  the  vocal 
organs  is  necessary  to  correct  instruction  in  reading  and 
singing. 

VOCAL  ORGANS.* 

141.  The  VOCAL  ORGANS  may  be  divided  into  the  lar1- 
ynx,  the  mouth,  and.  the  respiratory  organs.  (Figs.  12,50.) 

Q.  How  may  the  vocal  organs  be  divided  ? 

142.  The  LARYNX  consists  of  five  pieces  of  cartilage, 
(gristle,)  forming  a  kind  of  box,  open  at  each  end.     It 
is  situated  at  the  upper  part  of  the  trachea,  (windpipe,) 
below  the  chin.  (Figs.  46,  47.) 

Q.  Describe  the  larynx.     Where  is  it  situated  ? 
Remark.  —  It  is  this  part  of  the  "  windpipe,"  so  prom- 
inent in  man,  that  is  called  the  "  apple  of  Adam." 

143.  There  are  stretched  across  the  larynx  four  bands, 
(called  ligaments,  or  cords,)  two  on  each  side  of  the  tube. 
These  vocal  ligaments  are   so  arranged  as   to  form  an 

*  Illustrate  this  lesson  by  using  the  corresponding  organs  of  domes- 
tic animals,  with  outline  diagrams  and  the  blackboard. 

6 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


opening,  (ri'ma  glot-ti'dis,}  through  which  the  air  may 
pass.   (Fig.  47.) 

Q.  Describe  the  vocal  ligaments  ?     What  is  said  of  the  rima 
glottidis  ? 


Fig.  46. 


Fig.  47. 


Fig.  46.  A  side  view  of  the  larynx.  1.  Bone  at  base  of  tongue,  (os 
hyoides.)  3,  4,  5,  6.  Larynx.  7.  Trachea. 

Fig.  47.  An  ideal  section  of  the  larynx.  1.  The  trachea.  2,  2.  The 
lower  vocal  cords.  3,  3.  The  upper  vocal  cords.  4,  4.  Rima  glottidis. 
5,  5.  Cavities  between  upper  and  lower  vocal  cords. 

144.  The  air,  in  passing  from  the  lungs,  causes  the 
vocal   ligaments   to  vibrate,  and  produces   the  first,  or 
basement  tone,  as  touching  the  strings  of  a  harp  or  violin 
causes  a  vibratory  motion,  attended  with  sound.   (Fig.  47.) 

Q.  How  is  the  basement  tone  produced  ?  What  illustration  is 
given  ? 

145.  The  MOUTH  contains  the  tongue,  teeth,  lips,  and 
palate.     These  parts,  with  the  passages  of  the  nose,  vary 
or  articulate  the  basement  tone.   (Fig.  12.) 

Q.  What  parts  of  the  mouth  are  used  in  articulation  ? 


VOCAL 


146.  The  ORGANS  OF  RESPIRATION  (breathing)  sup- 
ply the  current  of  air  that  produces  the  movements  of 
the  vocal  ligaments. 

Q.  What  is  the  use  of  the  organs  of  respiration  in  speaking  1 


Fier.  48. 


Fig.  49. 


Fig.  48.     An  improper  position  :  but  one  not  un  frequently  seen  in 
some  of  our  common  schools  and  in  some  of  our  public  speakers. 
Fig.  49.     The  proper  position  for  reading,  speaking,  and  singing. 

147.  But  few,  if  any,  of  the  reptiles,  as  the  snake,  can 
produce  any  other  sound  than  a  hiss ;  while  most  of  the 
(See  p.  66.) 


64 


REVIEW   LESSON. 


Pig.  50. 


Fig    C. 


Fig.  50.    1,  2,  3.  The  salivary  glands.     4.   The 
trachea.    5.  The  oesophagus.    6,6.  The  left  lung. 

7,  7,  7.  The  bronchia  and  air  cells  of  riaht  lung. 

8.  The  heart.    9.  The  stomach.    10, 10.  The  liver. 
11,11,11.    The  small  intestine.     12,  1:_M2.    The 
large  intestine.     13,18.  The  diaphragm.     14,15, 
10.  Blood  vessels  connected  with  the  henrt. 

Fig.  C.  1.  The  left  auricle.  2.  The  riaht  auri- 
cle. 3.  The  left  ventricle.  4.  The  ri«ht  ventricle. 
5,0.  The  aorta.  7,7.  The  femoral  (leg)  arteries. 
8,8.  The  brachial  (arm)  arteries.  9, 9.  The  carotid 
arteries.  10,  10.  The  jugular  veins  11,  11.  The 
brachial  veins.  12.  The  femoral  veins.  13,  14. 
The  vena  cavas.  15.  The  pulmonary  artery.  16,  16.  The  right  and  left  pulrnonarv  arteries.  17, 
17.  The  pulmonary  veins.  18.  Thelacteals.  19,19.  The  thoracic  duct.  L'O,  20.  The  absorbents 
of  the  lower  extremities.  21,  21.  The  absorbents  of  the  upper  extremities.  22  The  small  intestine. 

Review  by  Questions.  —  What  can  you  say  of  the  Anatomy  of  the  digestive  organs  ?  of  the 
respiratory  organs  ?  of  the  circulatory  organs  ?  of  the  vocal  forgans  ?  What  can  you  tell  of 
the  use  of  the  digestive  system?  of  the  respiratory  system  ?  of  the  circulatory  system  ?  of  the  TO- 
cal  system  ?  What  can  you  state  of  food  ?  of  air  ?  of  blood  ?  of  building  up  the  system  ?  of  pull- 
ing  down  the  system  ?  What  will  you  say  of  means  to  prevent  disease  ?  to  preserve  health  ? 
H«w  should  accidents  be  treated,  as  poisoning  ?  drowning  ?  bleeding  from  divided  arteries  ? 


SYNTHETIC  REVIEW   OF  NUTRITIVE   APPARATUS 


30,  31,  32,  33,  34,  35, 
36,  37,  38,  40.     . 


44,47  ...... 

49,50,51,53,54.    . 

62,  63.  64,  65,  66,  67. 

72,  73.   ......  '  Lacteals, 

"8,79,80 


Teeth, 

Salivary 
if  lands  t 

Stomach, 

Small     intes- 
tine, 


DIGESTIVE 

SYSTEM, 


86,87,88,89. 


Thorax, 


\ 

93,  94,  95,  96,  97,  98.  .     Lun<rs, 

102,  103,  104,  105,  106,  )  Pulmonic  cir-  I  RESPI 

107  ........  J    culation,         | 

Air, 

115,  116,  117,  118,  120,  >  „      . 
121,  122,  123,  124.  .     .  {  Heart> 

127,  128,  129,  130,  131,  \  Systemic  cir-  I  CIRCULATORY 
132,  133,  134,  135.   .     .  j    dilution,        f   SYSTEM, 
102,  103,  104,  105,  106,     Pulmonic  cir- 


141,  142,  143,  J45. 


,        ,        ,        .  .     .          c 
29,  34,  37,  38,  39,  40.  .     Teeth, 


)    dilation, 
Vocal  organs, 


51,52,55,56,57. 
64,  65,  66,  67,  68. 


Stomach, 
Sm£l     «*«- 

74,75  .......     Lacteals, 

R1  I  Large     nites- 

81  ........  \    tine, 

89,  90.  .     .     .    .    .    .     Thorax, 

99,100.      .    .    ".    .    .    Lungs, 

103,  104,  105,  106,  107.  j     "ulattin  *" 
109,  110,  111.      .     .     .    J9ir, 

119,  120,  121,  122,  123, 
124,  126  ...... 

127,  129,  130,  131,  132, 
133,  134,  135,  136,  137. 


103,  104,  105,  106,  107. 
143,  144,  145,  146,  147. 


Heart, 

Systemic  cir- 
culation, 

Pulmonic  cir- 
culation, 

Vocal  organs, 


41,  42. Teeth, 

AH  AR  I  Salivary 

45>  46 {    gland!, 


VOCAL  STST., 


DlGESTIV] 
SYSTEM, 


RESPIRATO'RY 

SYSTEM, 


CIRCULATORY 

SYSTEM, 

VOCAL  SYST., 


ANATOMT 


PHYSIOLOGY 


57,  58,  59  60. 
67,69,70..    . 

76 

81,  82,  83.      . 
90, 91.  .    .    . 


112,  113,  114. 


139. 


148,  149,  150. 


Stomach, 
I  Small     intes- 
$    tine, 

Lacteals, 

!  Large    intes- 
tine, 

TJioraz,          "j 
Lungs, 
Pulmonic  cir- 
culation, 
JJir, 
Heart, 

)  Systemic    cir- 
|    culation, 
Pulmonic  cir- 
culation, 
Vocal  organs, 


DlGESTIYl 
SYSTEM, 


RESPIRATORY 

SYSTEM, 


CIRCULATORY 
SYSTEM, 


I 


HYQIENB 


VOCAL  SYST., 

REVIEW  BY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  Nutritive  Apparatus, 
the  Physiology,  the  Hygiene.  (Use  outline  anatomical,  PJates  I.,  III.,  V., 
VI.,  VII.)  (65) 

6* 


66  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

mam-ma'li-a,  as  the  ox,  horse,  dog,  and  cat,  can  make 
vocal  sounds. 

Q.  What  is  said  of  reptiles  ?     Of  the  mammalia  ? 

148.  To  read,  speak,  and  sing,   distinctly  and  with 
taste,  the  head  should  be  held  easily  erect,  so  that  the 
movements    of  the    vocal    organs    may    be    gentle  and 
effectual.     The  book,  also,  should  be  held  at  a  proper 
distance  from  the  face.  (Figs.  48,  49.) 

Q.  What  should  be  the  position  of  the  head  in  reading  or  sing- 
ing? Why?  How  should  the  book  be  held  ? 

149.  Good  and  elegant  reading,  speaking,  and   sing- 
ing, require  that  the  shoulders  be  thrown  back  and  the 
body  held  easily  erect,  so  that  there  may  be  a  free  move- 
ment of  the  organs  of  the  chest.   (Fig.  49.) 

Q.  What  should  be  the  position  of  the  shoulders  in  reading? 
Of  the  body  ?  Why  ? 

150.  Singing  and  reading  aloud,  in  a  correct  position, 
strengthen  and  improve  the  vocal  organs,  as  well  as  pre- 
vent disease  of  the  throat  and  lungs. 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  effects  of  singing  and  reading  ? 

Remark.  —  Repetition  is  necessary  in  learning  to  read. 
It  is  better  that  a  child  read  a  sentence  again  and  again, 
until  it  is  understood  and  read  correctly,  than  to  read 
pages  poorly  and  know  nothing  of  what  they  have  been 
reading. 

REVIEW. 

140,  141,  142,  143,  145.      .     Anatomy     ) 
143,  144,  145,  146,  147.      .     Pkysioloi 
148,  149,  150 Hygiene 

Review  by  Questions.  —  What  parts  are  employed  in  speech  ?  What  can  you  say 
(if  the  structure  of  the  larynx  ?  of  the  mouth  ?  of  the  lungs  ?  What  can  you  tell  of  the 
use  of  the  larynx?  of  the  mouth  end  its  parts?  of  the  lungs?  What  will  you  state  of 
position  in  reading?  in  speaking?  in  singing? 

REVIEW  BY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  vocal  organs,  the  Physiology,  the 
Hygiene.  (See  outline  anatomical,  Plates  I.,  III.,  and  V.)  (Review  lesson,  see  p.64.) 


143,  144,  145,  146,  147.      .     Physiology  >  of  the  VOCAL  ORGANS 


PART   II. 

151.  IN  this  part  the  NERVOUS  APPARATUS  will  be 

described.      It    embraces   the  Brain  and    Spi'nal  Cord, 

(cer^e-bro-spinal  axis,)  and  the  organs  or  instruments  of 

special  sensation  —  as  the  eye,  ear,  &c.   (Figs.  59,  60, 

61,  62,  65,  see  p.  90.) 

Q.  What  is  the  subject  of  Part  II.  I     What  does  the  nervous 
apparatus  embrace  1 


CHAPTER    I. 

152.  In  this  chapter  we  shall  treat  of  the  brain  and 
spinal  cord  —  organs  that  exercise  an  important  influ- 
ence upon  every  part  of  the  body.  (Fig.  59.) 

Q.  What  is  the  subject  of  Chapter  I.  Part  II.  ? 


LESSON    XIV. 

153.  In  large  hotels,  it  would  not  be  convenient  for 
boarders  occupying  rooms  to  ascend  and  descend  several 
nights  of  stairs  to  make  known  their  wants  ;  therefore, 
from  a  room  called  the  office,  wires  or  tubes  pass  to  all 
the  apartments  of  the  house,  by  which  messages  are  sent. 
So  in  the  human  system  we  find  a  beautiful  dome-shaped 
office,  where  a  great  deal  of  work  is  done.  This  busy 
workshop  is  the  brain,  and  its  errands  are  carried  through- 

(67) 


68 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


out  the  l(  house  we  live  in  "  by  means  of  its  bell  wires  — 
the  spinal  cord  and  nerves.    (Fig.  59.) 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  dome-shaped  office  and  bell  wires  of 
the  body  ? 

BRAIN.* 

154.  The  BRAIN  is  a  soft,  pulpy  mass  within  the  skull 
bones.  It  is  divided  into  two  portions,  called  the  cer'e 
brum  (large  brain)  and  cer-e-bel'lum,  (small  brain.)  (Figs. 
51,  52.) 

Q.  How  is  the  brain  divided  ?     What  are  the  parts  called  ? 

Fig.  61. 


Fig.  5.     Side  view  of  the  brain.   1,1,1.  The  bones  of  the  skull.    2.  The 
large  brain.    3.  The  small  brain.    4.  The  spinal  cord. 

*  Illustrate  this  lesson  by  using  the  brain  of  domestic  animals,  with 
diagrams  and  the  blackboard.     (See  Preface.) 


BRAIN.  69 

155.  The  CEREBRUM  is  the  upper  and  front  portion. 
The  outside  is  irregular,  like  a  peach  stone.  These  irreg- 
ularities are  called  con-vo-lu'tions.  (Fig.  51.) 

Q.  Where  is  the  cerebrum  situated  ?  What  is  its  appearance  1 
What  are  the  irregularities  called  ? 

»    j  Fig.  52. 


Fig.  52.  Back  view  of  the  brain.  1.  The  large  brain,  covered  with  itJ 
membranes.  2.  The  brain  without  the  membranes,  exhibiting  their 
irregularities.  3,  4.  The  small  brain.  5.  The  spinal  cord.  6.  The  fis- 
sure between  the  two  sides. 


156.  The  CEREBELLUM  is  placed  at  the  lower  and  back 
part  of  the  skull.     It  is  smaller  than  the  cerebrum,  and 
has  a  smooth  surface.  (Figs.  51,  52.) 

Q.  Where  is  the  cerebellum  situated  ?     Describe  it. 

157.  The  brain,  both  large  and  small,  is  divided  into 
two  sides,  or  hemispheres.     The  whole  is  surrounded  by 
membranes  as  well  as  bones.  (Fig.  52.) 

Remark.  —  The  brain  is  quite  soft  in  childhood,  and 
blows  upon  the  skull  bones  may  produce  disease,  and 


70 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


even  death.  Hence  no  child  should  ever  be  struck 
upon  the  head. 

Q.  Why  should  not  a  child  be  struck  upon  the  head  ? 

158.  In  BIRDS,  the  large  and  small  brain  are  nearly 
of  the  same  size ;  but  the  small  brain  is  not  divided  into 
two  parts.  Where  the  nerves  of  the  legs  and  wings 
originate,  the  spinal  cord  is  enlarged.  (Fig.  53.) 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  brain,  nerves,  and  spinal  cord  of  a 
bird? 


Fig.  53. 


Fig.  54. 


Fig.  55. 


Fig.  ^3.  Brain  of  a  bird.  1.  The  large  brain.  2.  The  optic  ganglia. 
3.  The  small  brain.  4.  The  spinal  cord. 

Fig!o4.  Brain  of  a  fish.  1.  The  ganglia  of  smell.  2.  The  large 
brain.  3.  The  ganglia  of  sight.  4.  The  small  brain.  5.  The  spinal 
cord. 

Fig.  55.  Nervous  system  of  an  insect.  1,1.  Central  ganglia.  2,  2, 
2.  Nerves  that  connect  the  ganglia. 

159.  In  FISHES,  the  brain  is  much  smaller  than  the 
points  from  which  the  nerve  of  sight  proceeds.  The 
spinal  cord  is  large,  and  divided  at  its  commencement 


BRAIN.  7 1 

into    two   parts.     The  vision    of  a  fish  is  very  acute. 
(Fig.  54.) 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  of  a  fish  ?     Of 
the  vision  of  a  fish  ? 

160.  In  INSECTS  there  are  gan'gli-a,  or  central  points, 
in  the  head  and  at  each  section  of  the  body.     These 
points  are  united  by  a  double  cord.     The  nerves  proceed 
from  these  central  points.  (Fig.  55.) 

Q.  What  is  said  of  .the  nervous  system  of  insects  ? 

161.  The  human  brain  is  an  instrument  or  organ  of 
the  mind  and  centre  of  sensation.     Its  size,  health,  and 
activity  generally  measure  the  amount  of  mental  power 
anft  acuteness  of  sensation. 

Q.  What  is  the  use  of  the  brain  ?     What  generally  measures 
the  amount  of  mental  power? 

162.  The  brain  is  largely  supplied  with  blood.     The 
health  of  the  organ  and  the  power  of  the  mind  require 
that  the  blood  that  flows  to  this  organ  be  pure. 

Q.  With  what  is  the  brain  supplied?     What  should  be  the 
quality  of  the  blood  that  flows  to  the  brain?     Why? 

163.  To  educate  the  mind  or  train  the  brain,  there 
must  be  repeated  effort,  as  in  learning  to  use  the  vocal 
organs. 

Q.  What  is  necessary  to  educate  the  nynd  or  train  the  brain  ? 

164.  The  brain  may  be  overworked  ;  but,  where  sleep 
is  regular  and  refreshing,  there  is  but  little  danger  of 
disease. 

Q.  What  is  needful  to  prevent  disease  of  the  brain  ? 

165.  In  illness,  the  brain  is  more  sensitive  than  in 
health.     Sick  rooms,  particularly  those  of  children,  should 
not  be  thronged  with  visitors. 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  brain  when  we  are  ill  ?     Of  sick  room*  ? 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


REVIEW. 

151,  152)  154,  155,  156,  157,  158,  159,  160.     .    Anatomy     > 

188,161,169 Physiology}  of  the  BRAIN. 

162,  163,  164,  165.      .  Hygiene      ) 

Review  by  Questions.  —  How  is  the  nervous  apparatus  divided?  How  is  the  brain 
divided?  What  can  you  state  of  the  cerebrum?  of  ihe  cerebellum?  How  are  both 
divided  ?  What  invests  them  ?  What  can  you  say  of  the  nervous  system  of  birds  ? 
of  fishes?  of  insects?  What  can  you  tell  of  the  use  of  the  brain?  of  the  blood  of  the 
brain?  of  sleep?  of  sickness? 

RBTIEW  BY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  brain,  the  Physiology,  the  Hygiene. 
(See  outline  anatomical,  Plates  I.  and  VIII.) 


LESSON  XV. 

166.  In  this  lesson  we  shall  treat  of  the  little  senti- 
nels that  keep  such  strict  watch  over  the  "  house  we  live 
in."     These  body  guards  warn  us  instantly  of  danger, 
and  tell  by  their  sensitiveness  when  the  house  is  crum- 
bling or  needs  repairing;    and  some  of  them  increase 
our  happiness  by  conveying  impressions  of  the  life  and 
light  of  this  beautiful  world.     These  useful  instruments, 
or  organs,  are  the  nerves  that  pass  from  the  brain  and 
spinal  cord.  (Figs.  56,  57,  58.) 

Q.  To  what  are  the  nerves  compared  I 

SPINAL  CORD  AND  NERVES.* 

167.  The  SPINAL  CORD  (pith  of  the  back  bone)  con- 
nects with  the  brain.     It  is  placed  in  the  canal  formed 
by  the  bones  of  the  spinal  column.  (Fig.  57.) 

Q.  Where  is  the  spinal  cord  situated  ? 

*  Illustrate  this  lesson  by  using  the  bones  of  the  spinal  column,  the 
spinal  cord  and  nerves  of  domestic  animals,  with  outline  diagi-ams  and 
blackboard. 


SPINAL   CORD    AM)    KERNES. 


73 


168.  The    NERVES    are    small  white   cords,   that  are 
spread  through  every  part  of  the  body.     They  are  com- 
posed of  matter  similar  to  the  brain  and  spinal  cord. 
Like  the  brain,  they  are  enclosed  in  a  delicate  sheath,  or 
membrane.  (Figs.  56,  59.) 

Q.  Describe  the  nerves. 

169.  The  nerves  that  pass  from  the  brain  are  named 
vra'ni-al  nerves.  (Fig.   56.)     Those  that  proceed  from 
the  spinal  cord  are  called  spinal  nerves,  (Fig.  59.) 

Q.  What  are  the  nerves    called  that  pass   from  the  brain* 
Of  the  spinal  cord  ? 


Fig.  56 


"Fig.  56.  A  vertical  section  of  the  large  and  small  brain  and  spinal 
1.  The  large  brain.  2.  The  small  brain.  3,  4.  The  spinal  cord. 
*6.  Nerve  of  smell.  7,  8.  The  eye  and  nerve  of  sight  9,  10,  11,  12,  13, 
14  15, 16,  17,  18,  19,  20.  Nerves  of  the  face  and  head. 

170.  The  CRANIAL,  or  brain  nerves  are  divided  into 
twelve  pairs.     These  pass  to  the  eye,  ear,  nose,  tongue, 
teeth,  and  parts  about  the  face.   (Fig.  56.) 
7 


74  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE, 


Q.  How  many  pairs  of  cranial  nerves  ?     How  are  they  dis 
tributed  ? 

Fig.  57.  Fig.  58. 


Fig.  57.  A  section  of  the  brain  and  spinal  column.  1.  The  cerebrum, 
(large  brain.)  2,  The  cerebellum,  (small  brain.)  3,  4,  4.  The  spinal  covd 
in  its  canal. 

Pig.  58.  Anterior  view  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord.  1,  1.  The  two> 
hemispheres  of  the  t-evobrum.  3,  3.  The  cerebellum.  7,  10,  11,  11.  The 
spinal  cord.  12.  12.  Spinal  nerves.  13,  13.  The  brachial  plexus.  14,14. 
The  lumber  and  sacral  plexus. 

171.  The  SPINAL  nerves  are  divided  into  thirty  pairs. 
These  proceed  from  the  spinal  cord.  Each  spinal  nerve 
has  two  roots.  (Figs.  58.  59.) 


SPINAL   CORD    AND   NERVES.  75 

Q.  How  many  pairs  of  nerves  proceed  from  the  spinal  cord  1 
How  many  roots  have  the  spinal  nerves  ? 

172.  The  spinal  nerves  are  distributed  to  the  muscles 
of  the  body,  upper  and  lower  extremities,  and  the  skin. 

Q.  How  are  the  spinal  nerves  distributed  ? 

173.  One  root  of  the  nerve  gives  sensation  or  feeling 
to  the  part  to  which  it  is  distributed.     The  other  root 
gives  the  power  of  motion. 

Q.  What  are  the  different  functions  of  the  roots  of  the  spinal 
nerves  ? 

174.  In  PARALYSIS,  (palsy,)  where  feeling  is  destroyed, 
one  root  (the  posterior)  of  the  nerve  is  affected.     Where 
motion  alone  is  lost,  the  anterior  root  of  the  nerve  is 
diseased. 

Q.  What  effect  has  disease  upon  the  roots  of  the  spinal  nerves  ^ 

Remark.  —  In  the  lower  cavity  of  the  body,  (U  20,) 
upon  each  side  of  the  spinal  column,  are  situated  small 
masses  of  nervous  matter,  called  gan'gli-ons.  These 
are  connected  with  each  other  and  with  the  spinal  nerves. 
They  likewise  send  multitudes  of  minute  threads  to  the 
blood  vessels  of  every  part  of  the  body.  This  is  called 
the  gan-gli-on'ic,  or  sym-pa-theftc  nerve,  (Fig.  D,  p.  76.) 

Q.    What  nerve  is  named  in  the  remark  ?     Describe  it. 

REVIEW. 


174  .........     Hygiene 


Review  by  Questions.  —  What  can  you  state  of  the  spinal  cord  ?  How 
are  the  nerves  divided  ?  What  can  you  tell  of  the  cranial  nerves  ?  What 
is  said  of  paralysis  ?  What  can  you  say  of  the  sympathetic  nerve  ? 

REVIEW  BY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  spinal  cord  and  nerves, 
the  Physiology,  the  Hygiene.  (See  outline  anatomical,  Plate  VIII.) 


76 


REVIEW   LESSON. 


Pig.  59. 


Fig.  D. 


Fig.  59.  A  back  view  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord.  1.  The  cerebrum.  2.  The 
cerebellum.  3.  The  spinal  cord.  4.  Nerves  of  the  face.  5.  The  brachial  plexus  of 
nerves.  6,  7,  8,  9.  Nerves  of  the  arm.  10.  Nerves  that  pass  under  the  ribs.  11.  Th« 
lumbar  plexus  of  nerves.  12.  The  sacral  plexus  of  nerves.  13,  14,  15,  16.  Nerves 
of  the  lower  limbs. 


REVIEW    OF   THE    CEREBRO-SP1NAL    AXIS. 


77 


Fig.  D.  A  beautiful  represemtation  of  the  sympathetic  ganglia  and  their  connection 
with  other  nerves.  It  is  from  the  grand  engraving  of  Manec,  reduced  in  size.  A,  A, 
A.  The  semilunar  ganglion  and  solar  plexus,  situated  below  the  diaphragm  and  behind 
the  stomach.  This  ganglion  is  situated  in  the  region  (pit  of  the  stomach)  where  a 
blow  gives  severe  suffering.  D,  D,  D.  The  thoracic  (chest)  ganglia,  ten  or  eleven  in 
number.  E,  E.  The  external  and  internal  branches  of  the  thoracic  ganglia.  6,  H. 
The  right  and  left  coronary  plexus,  situated  upon  the  heart.  I,  N,  Q,.  The  inferior, 
middle,  and  superior  cervical  (neck)  ganglia.  1.  The  renal  plexus  of  nerves  that  sur- 
rounds the  kidneys.  2.  The  lumbar  (loin)  ganglion.  3.  Their  internal  branches.  4. 
Their  external  branches.  5.  The  aortic  plexus  of  nerves  that  lies  upon  the  aorta.  The 
other  letters  and  figures  represent  nerves  that  connect  important  organs  and  nerves 
with  the  sympathetic  ganglia. 


SYNTHETIC  REVIEW  OF  THE  CEREBRO-SPINAL  AXIS. 


154,  155,  156,  157, 
158,  159,  160,  154. 
167,  168,  169,  170, 
171,174.  .  .  . 

153,  161,  162.  .    . 

172.173.  .    .    . 

162,  163,  165.  .    . 

173.174.  .    .    . 


Brain, 


•AXATOMT 


Brain,  , 

Spinal  cord  and  nerves,    PHTIIOLOQT 


Brain, 

Spinal  cord  and  nerves, 


HTQ«M 


of  the  CEBEBRO 
SPINAL  Axis. 
(Fig.  59.) 


Review  by  Questions.  —  What  analysis  can  you  give  of  the  nervous  appa- 
ratus ?  How  is  the  brain  divided  ?  What  can  you  say  of  the  structure  of 
the  cerebrum  ?  of  the  cerebellum  ?  What  can  you  tell  of  the  anatomy  of 
the  spinal  cord  ?  of  the  cranial  nerves  ?  of  the  spinal  nerves  ?  What  can 
you  state  of  the  nervous  system  of  birds  ?  of  fishes  ?  of  insects  ?  What 
can  you  say  of  the  sympathetic  nerve  ? 

What  can  you  tell  of  the  physiology  or  use  of  the  above-named  parts  ? 

How  can  these  parts  be  developed  ?  What  can  you  say  of  the  blood  of 
the  nervous  system  ?  of  the  education  of  the  brain  ?  of  sleep  ?  of  sick  rooms  ? 

REVIEW  BY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  cerebro-spinal  axis,  the 
Physiology,  the  Hygiene.  (Use  outline  anatomical,  Plates  I.  and  VIII.) 

7* 


78  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


CHAPTER    II. 

175.  THE  Creator,  in  placing  us  in  this  world  of  so 
much  beauty  and  grandeur,  gave  us  organs  to  enjoy  it. 
These  works  of  God  are  perceived  through  the  senses. 

LESSON    XVI. 

176.  There  are  FIVE  SENSES  — feeling,  or  touch,  taste, 
smell,  vision,  or  sight,  and  hearing. 

Q.  How  many  senses  ?     What  are  they  ? 

FEELING,   OR  TOUCH. 

177.  FEELING  resides  in  the  skin  generally ;  but  it  is 
most  acute  in  the  ends  of  the  fingers,  palms  of  the  hands, 
and  particularly  the  lips. 

Q.  Where  does  feeling  reside  ?     Where  is  it  most  acute  ? 

178.  By  use,  this   sense  becomes   more   acute.     For 
this  reason,  blind  persons  learn  to  know  so  accurately 
different  objects. 

Q.  What  effect  has  use  upon  feeling  ?     Is  this  sense  of  great 
use  to  blind  persons'? 

TASTE. 

179.  TASTE  not  only  gives  us  physical  pleasure,  but 
has  an  influence  upon  our  health  ;  for  upon  it  we  con- 
siderably depend  in  distinguishing  proper  food. 

Q.  What  is  the  use  of  taste  ? 


THE    SENSES.  79 

1 

Remark.  —  The  camel  trusts  to  this  sense  alone  to 
distinguish  its  food. 

Q.  Of  what  use  is  taste  to  the  camel  ? 

180.  The  tongue  is  the  seat  of  taste.  A  particular 
nerve  called  the  gust'a-to-ry,  or  nerve  of  taste,  is  the 
agent  of  this  sense.  (Fig.  61.) 

Q.  Where  is  taste  situated  ?  What  is  the  name  of  the  nerye 
of  taste? 

Fig.  60. 


Fig.  60.  Distribution  of  the  fifth  pair  of  nerves.  1.  The  eye.  2.  The 
upper  jaw.  3.  The  tongue.  4.  The  lower  jaw.  5.  The  fifth  pair  of 
nerves.  6.  Branch  to  the  eye.  7.  Branch  to  the  upper  jaw.  8.  Branch 
to  the  tongue  and  lower  jaw.  This  is  the  nerve  of  taste. 

181.  Taste,  though  intended  to  give  us  pleasure.,  is 
often  abused  by  tobacco,  intoxicating  drinks,  and  food 
spice  1  to  excess. 

Q.  For  what  was  taste  intended  ?     How  is  it  abused  ? 


80  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE, 

SMELL. 

182.  SMELL  has  Its  seat  in  the  passages  of  the  nose, 
(Fig.  61.) 

Q.  Where  is  the  seat  of  smell  ? 

183.  The  NOSE  is  formed  of  bone,  cartilage,  (gristle,,; 
and  lined  with  a  very  delicate  membrane.  (Fig.  61.) 

Q.  Describe  the  nose. 

184.  Upon  this  membrane  is  spread  the 
or  nerve  of  smell.  (Fig.  61.) 

Q..  What  is  the  name  of  the  nerve  of  smell  1 

Fig.  6.1. 


Fig.  61.  A  side  view  of  the  passage  of  the  nostrils  and  the  distiibt?- 
tion  of  the  nerve  of  smell.  4.  The  nerve  of  smell.  5.  The  fine  and 
curious  divisions  of  this  nerve  on  the  membrane  of  the  n»se.  6.  A 
branch  of  the  fifth  pair  of  nerves. 

185.  Smelling  increases  our  enjoyment,  though  it  is 
not  essential  to  our  existence.  It  aids  us  in  distinguish- 
ing useful  from  hurtful  food. 

Q.  Is  the  sense  of  smell  esvsentiai  to  life  ?  Wherein  does  it 
aid  us1? 


THE   EYES.  81 

Remark.  —  Some  of  the  lower  order  of  animals,  as 
the  hound,  has  this  sense  more  acute  than  man. 

Q.  Name  the  inferior  animals  that  have  this  sense  more  acute 
than  man  ? 

REVIEW. 

177, 180,  183,  184.    .    Anatomy     of  organs  of  touch,  taste,  1 

and  smell. 
176,  177,  179,  182.    .     Physiology  of  organs  of  touch,  taste,  I  SENSB 

and  smell. 

178,  181,  185.  .     .    .    Hygiene      of  organs  of  touch,  taste, 
•  and  smell.  j 

Review  by  Questions.  —  How  many  senses  are  there?  Can  you  name 
them  ?  What  can  you  say  of  feeling  ?  What  of  taste  ?  What  of  smell  ? 

REVIEW  BY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  organs  of  touch,  taste, 
and  smell,  the  Physiology,  the  Hygiene. 


LESSON    XVII. 

186.  Of  the  senses,  none  is  more  useful  and  adds  more 
to  our  happiness  than  vision,  or  sight.     The  organs  from 
which  we  receive  so  much  pleasure  are  the  eyes. 

THE  EYES* 

187.  The  eye  is  composed  of  many  parts  —  as  the 
coats,  hu'mors,  mus'cles,  &c.    (Fig. 62.) 

Q.  Of  what  is  the  eye  composed  ? 

188.  The  COATS  are  three  in  number  —  the  corn'e-a  and 
scle-rot'ic,  the  cho'roid,  and  the  ret'i-na.  (Fig.  62.) 

Q.  How  many  coats  has  the  eye  ?     What  are  they "? 

*  Illustrate  this  lesson  by  using  the  eyes  of  animals,  diagrams,  and 
the  blackboard. 


82  ANATOMY,    PHYSTOLOC.Y,    AND    HYGIENE. 

189.  The  CORNEA  is  the  outer  front  part  of  the  eye. 
In  health,  this  coat  is  covered  with  a  fluid  that  gives  the 
eye  its  sparkling  brilliancy.   (Fig.  62.) 

Q.  Describe  the  cornea.     With  what  is  it  covered  "? 

190.  The   SCLEROTIC  is    the    external    and    principal 
coat.     It  gives  form  to  the  eye.     It  is  sometimes  called 
the  "white  of  the  eye,"  from   its   chalky  appearance. 
(Fig.  62.) 

Q.  Describe  the  sclerotic  coat.     What  gives  form  to  the  eye  ? 
What  is  it  sometimes  called  ? 

Fig.  62. 


Fig.  62.  A  section  of  the  globe  of  the  eye.  1.  The  sclerotic  coat. 
2.  The  cornea.  (This  connects  with  the  sclerotic  coat  by  a  bevelled 
edge.)  3.  The  choroid  coat.  6,  6.  The  iris.  7.  The  pupil.  8.  The 
retina.  10,  11,  11.  Chambers  of  the  eye  that  contain  the  aqueous  hu- 
mor. 12.  The  crystalline  lens.  13.  The  vitreous  humor.  15.  The  op- 
tic nerve.  16.  The  central  artery  of  the  eye. 

Remark.  —  In  the  shark,  that  lives  at  great  depths  in 
the  ocean,  the  sclerotic  coat  is  bone.  This  provision  is 
to  resist  the  great  pressure  of  the  water. 

Q.  What  is  said'of  the  eye  of  the  shark  ? 

191.  The  CHOROID  coat  is  very  thin.     It  is  a  net  of 


THE    EYES.  83 


blood  vessels.     Its  inner  surface  is  cl    ^^orcd.  (Fig. 

62.)  % 

Q.  Describe  the  choroid  coat.  9 

Remark.  —  In  the  cat  this  coat  is  light  colored,  which 

gives  a  wild  and  yellow  glare  to  pussy's  eyes  when  seen 

in  the  dark. 

Q.  What  causes  the  wild  appearance  of  the  eye  of  a  cat  in 
the  dark  ? 

192.  The  RETIXA  is  the  expansion  of  the  optic  nerve, 
(nerve  of  vision.)     It  is  the  immediate   seat  of  sight. 
The  impression  made  by  objects  upon  the  retina  is  con- 
veyed to  the  brain.   (Fig.  62.) 

Q.  Describe  the  retina  and  its  use. 

193.  There  are  three  humors  within  the  coats  of  the 
eye  —  a'que-ous,  crys'tal-lim,  and  vit're-ous.  (Fig.  62.) 

Q.  How  many  humors  has  the  eye  ?     What  are  their  names  ? 

194.  The  AQUEOUS  humor  is  fluid.     It  occupies  the 
fore  part  of  the  eye,  behind  the  cornea.   (Fig.  62.) 

Q.  What  is  the  aqueous  humor  ?     Where  is  it  situated  ? 

195.  The  CRYSTALLINE  humor  lies  in  the  central  part 
of  the  eye.     It  is  oval,  dense,  and  composed  of  layers 
like  an  onion.  (Fig.  62.) 

Q.  Describe  the  crystalline  humor. 

196.  The  VITREOUS  humor  occupies  the  larger  and 
back  portion  of  the  eye.  (Fig.  62.) 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  vitreous  humor  ? 

197.  The  IRIS  is  a  curtain  across  the  eye,  before  the 
crystalline   humor.     It  has  an  opening  in  the   centre, 
called  the  pu'pil.     The   iris  gives  the  blue,  black,  or 
gray  color  to  the  eye.  (Fig.  62.) 

Q.  Where  is  the  iris  situated  ?     What  is  the  opening  m  th« 
centre  called  ?     What  does  the  iris  give  ? 


84 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE, 


198.  Th|M  K>f  a  bee  or  fly  is  composed  of  many 
thousand  ^pWr^^ach  of  which  has  a  nerve,  so  that  it  is 
an  independent  eye.  Hence  a  bee  or  fly  can  see  in  all 
directions  without  turning  the  head.  (Fig.  63.) 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  eye  of  a  bee  or  fly  ? 


Fig.  63, 


Fig.  63.  The  compound  eye  of  a  fly  or  bee.  1.  The  facets,  or  lenses, 
without  hairs.  2.  The  same  with  hairs.  3.  The  conical  form  of  the 
facets  shown. 

199.  The  coats  give   form  to  the  eye;  the  humors 
change  the  direction  of  the  rays  of  light  that  pass  to  the 
retina ;  the  iris  regulates  the  quantity  of  light  that  enters 
the  eye.   (Fig.  62.) 

Q.  What  is  the  use  of  the  coats  of  the  eye  ?  The  humors  ? 
The  iris  ? 

200.  The  MUSCLES  of  the    eye    are   six  in  number. 
They  are  small,  and  produce  the  movements  of  this  organ. 

Q.  How  many  muscles  has  the  eye,  and  what  is  their  use  ? 

201.  The  eye  is  protected  from  too  great  light,  particles 


THE    EYES.  85 

of  dust,  and  other  substances  by  the  eyebrows,  eyelids, 
and  eyelashes. 

Q.  What  parts  protect  the  eye  ? 

202.  The  tears  also  afford  protection  by  keeping  the  eye 
moist,  as  well  as  aiding  the  removal  of  particles  of  matter. 

Q.  What  is  the  use  of  tears  ? 

203.  Vision  is  improved  by  practice,  like  the  other 
senses ;  but  it  requires  care  not  to  overtask  the  eye. 

Q.  How  is  sight  improved  ?     What  care  should  be  used  ? 

204.  The  eye  should  be  used  in  viewing  objects  at 
different  distances,  as  nearsightedness  may  be  caused  by 
repeatedly,  and  for  a  long  time,  viewing  small  objects 
very  near  the  eye. 

Q.  How  should  the  eye  be  used  ?     How  may  nearsightedness 
be  produced  ? 

205.  The  eye  should  be  used  in  a  moderate  light,  and 
should  be  frequently  rested. 

Q.  What  is  said  of  light  and  rest  to  the  eyes  ? 

REVIEW. 

187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 200.  Anatomy 


Review  by  Questions.  —  What  are  the  parts  that  compose  the  eye  ?  What 
can  you  say  of  the  structure  and  use  of  the  coats  of  the  eye  ?  What  of  the 
humors  ?  What  of  the  muscles  ?  How  is  the  eye  protected  ?  How  should 
it  be  used  ? 

REVIEW  BY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  eye,  the  Physiology,  the 
Hygiene.  (See  outline  anatomical,  Plate  X.) 


LESSON    XVIII. 

206.  HEARING,  in  utility,  is  scarcely  inferior  to  that 
of  sight.     While  we  can  see  in  only  one  direction  at  a 
8 


86  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

time,  we  can  hear  from  all  directions.  While  the  eye  is 
useless  in  the  dark,  and  veiled  by  its  own  curtains  during 
sleep,  the  ear  is  ever  a  faithful  sentinel,  warning  us 
against  danger. 

Q.  What  is  said  of  hearing'? 

THE  EAR. 

£07.  The  EAR  is  composed  of  three  parts  —  the  exter- 
nal, the  middle,  and  the  internal  ear.  (Figs.  64,  65.) 

Q.  Of  how  many  parts  is  the  ear  composed  ?     What  are  they  1 

£08.  The  EXTERNAL  EAR  is  formed  by  cartilage,  or 
gristle.  This  is  covered  by  a  delicate  membrane,  or 
skin.  (Figs.  64,  65.) 

Q.  Describe  the  external  ear. 

£09.  A  tube,  or  channel,  leads  from  the  external  to  the 
middle  ear.  This  tube  is  always  open.  Its  only  pro- 
tection against  the  entrance  of  insects  is  a  very  bitter 
wax,  (ce-ru'men,}  formed  at  the  roots  of  fine  hairs,  with 
which  it  is  lined.  (Figs.  64,  65.) 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  tube  between  the  external  and  middle 
ear  'l.  Where  is  the  earwax  formed,  and  what  is  one  of  its  uses  ? 

£10.  The  MIDDLE  EAR  is  a  cavity  called  the  tym'pa- 
num,  (drum.)  (Fig.  65.) 

Q.  What  is  the  middle  ear  ? 

£11.  The  external  part  of  the  middle  ear  is  formed 
by  a  membrane  called  the  drum,  (mem'bra-na  tym'pa-ni.) 
It  is  the  bottom  of  the  tube  leading  from  the  external  to 
the  middle  ear,  and  forms  a  division  between  them. 
(Fig.  65.) 

Q.  Where  is  the  drum,  or  membranatympani,  situated  ?  What 
is  its  use  1 


THE    EAR.  87 

Remark.  —  A  small  nerve  crosses  this  membrane, 
which  connects  with  a  nerve  that  is  distributed  to  the 
teeth.  This  is  the  cause  of  the  unpleasant  sensation  of 
the  teeth  when  a  file  is  drawn  across  iron  or  steel. 

Q.  What  causes  the  unpleasant  sensation  of  the  teeth  when 
filing  iron  ? 


.64. 


"Fig.  64.  External  and  middle  ear.  a.  The  external  ear.  c.  The 
channel  from  the  external  to  the  middle  ear.  g.  The  drum  of  the  ear.  k. 
The  middle  ear.  e.  The  bones  of  the  middle  ear.  i.  The  tube  from  the 
throat  to  the  middle  ear.  b,f,  h.  The  internal  ear.  d.  The  auditory 
nerve. 

212.  In  the  MIDDLE  EAR  are  four  of  the  smallest  bones 
of  the  body.     They  form  a  chain  of  connection  between 
the  external  and  internal  ear.  (Fig.  65.) 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  small  bones  in  the  middle  ear  1 

213.  A  tube  leads  from  the  middle  ear  to  the  throat. 
Hence,  when  we  wish  to  hear  distant  or  faint  sounds,  we 
usually  open  the  mouth.   (Figs.  64,  65.) 


88  ANATOMY;    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

Q.  Why  do  we  open  the  mouth  to  hear  a  distant  or  faint 
sound  I 

Remark.  —  The  closing  of  this  tube  by  enlarged  ton- 
sils and  sore  throat  causes  difficulty  of  hearing. 

Q.  What  is  one  cause  of  defective  hearing  ? 

£14.  The  INTERNAL  ear,  from  its  windings,  is  called 
the  lab'y-rintJi.  Here  we  find  the  auditory,  or  nerve  of 
hearing.  (Fig.  65.) 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  internal  ear  ? 

Fig.  65. 


Fig.  65.  A  view  of  all  the  parts  of  the  ear.  1.  The  tube  that  leads 
to  the  internal  ear.  2.  The  drum  of  the  ear.  3,  4,  5.  The  bones  of  the 
ear.  7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  12.  The  internal  ear.  13.  The  auditory  nerve.  14. 
The  channel  from  the  middle  ear  to  the  throat,  (Eustachian  tube.) 

215.  Waves  or  vibrations  of  air  are  collected  by  the 
external  ear  and  conveyed  to  the  middle  ear,  and  across 
it,  by  the  chain  of  bones,  to  the  internal  ear.  An  im- 
pression is  made  on  the  nerve  of  hearing  in  so  delicate  a 


THE    EAB.  89 

manner  as  to  enable  us  to  perceive  minute  variations  of 
sound.  (Fig.  65.) 

Q.  How  are  the  waves  of  air  or  sound  conveyed  to  the  middle 
ear? 

216.  This  sense  can  be  improved  by  culture  or  train- 
ing ;  and,  in  order  to  hear  perfectly,  all  the  parts  that 
aid  in  hearing  should  be  healthy. 

Q.  What  is  necessary  to  perfect  hearing  ? 

Remark.  —  1.  It  is  wrong  to  put  the  heads  of  pins 
into  the  ear,  as  they  may  cause  inflammation.  The  wax 
can  be  softened  by  dropping  into  the  tube  some  oil ;  and 
in  a  few  hours  remove  it  by  ejecting  warm  soapsuds 
into  the  ear. 

2.  When  worms  and  insects  find  their  way  into  the 
tube  of  the  external  ear,  they  can  usually  be  driven  out 
by  dropping  in  warm  olive  oil. 

Q.  What  is  said  in  the  first  remark  ?  in  the  second  * 

REVIEW. 

207,  208,  209,  210,  211,  212,  213,  214.    .    Anatomy     } 

211,212,213,215 Physiology  \  of  the  EAR. 

216 Hygiene       } 

Review  by  Questions.  —  Can  you  name  the  parts  of  the  ear  ?  What  can 
you  say  of  the  structure  of  the  external  ear  ?  What  can  you  state  of  the 
anatomy  of  the  middle  ear  ?  What  of  the  internal  ear  ?  Can  you  tell  the 
uses  of  the  external,  middle,  and  internal  ear  ?  How  is  sound  produced  ? 
How  are  we  able  to  perceive  sound  ?  What  can  you  say  of  the  cultivation 
of  this  sense  ?  How  can  disease  of  the  ear  be  prevented  ? 

REVIEW  BY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  ear,  the  Physiology, 
the  Hygiene.  (See  outline  anatomical,  Plate  X.) 

8* 


90  REVIEW    LESSON. 

Fig.  66.  Fig.  67.  Fig.  68. 


REVIEW    OF    THE    NERVOUS    APPARATUS. 


91 


Fig.  66.  A  representation  of  the  nose.  1  The  olfactory  nerve.  2.  The  ramifica- 
tion of  the  olfactory  nerve.  3.  A  nerve  of  feeling. 

Fig.  67.  A  representation  of  the  brain,  spinal  cord,  and  spinal  nerves.  1.  The 
large  brain,  (cerebrum.)  2.  The  small  brain,  (cerebellum.)  3,  3.  The  spinal  cord. 
4.  The  sciatic  nerve. 

Fig.  68.  Section  of  the  eye.  1,  2,  3.  The  coats  of  the  eye.  4.  The  cornea.  6,  6. 
The  iris.  7.  The  pupil.  10,  11.  The  aqueous  humor.  12.  The  crystalline  humor. 
13.  The  vitreous  humor.  15.  The  optic  nerve. 

Fig.  C9  represents  the  nerves  of  sensation  of  the  face.    1.  The  nerve  of  sensation. 

2.  The  branch  to  the  eye.    3.  The  branch  to  the  upper  jaw.    4.  The  branch  to  the 
lower  jaw.    5.  The  tongue.    6.  The  nerve  of  taste.    7.  The  branch  to  the  lower  jaw. 

Fig.  A.    The  ear.     1.  The  external  opening  of  the  ear.    2.  The  drum  of  the  ear. 

3,  4,  5,  6.  The  small  bones  of  the  ear.    7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  12.  The  internal  ear.    13.  The 
nerve  of  hearing.     14.  The  Eustachian  tube. 


SYNTHETIC  REVIEW  OF  THE  NERVOUS  APPARATUS 


154,  155,  156,  157,  158,  159, 
160 


167,  168,  169,  170,  171.  . 

177,  180,  183,  184.      .    . 
187,  188,  189,  190,  191,  192, 


Brain,  /  CEREBRO-SPIWAL 

Spinal  cord  and  f   SYSTEM, 

nerves, 
Feeling,  Taate, 

and  Smell, 


j»/,  lee,  Jt<y,  jyu,  iyj,  i»y, ) 
193,  194,  195,  19o,  197,  198,  J  Eye, 

207,  208,  209,  aio/311.  212,  )  ,, 
213,  214.  .     .     .     .     .     .     !  J  JBlir« 

153,  161,  162 Brah 

172,  173.    . 


SENTIENT 

TEM, 


TIM, 


m.'™."s- MS**, 

169,  190,  192,  197,  198,  199,  j  „  \ 

200,201,202, {**** 

211,212,213,215.      .    .     .     Ear, 

162,  163,  165 Brain,  \ 

,-4  I  Spinal  cord  and  > 

'  J    nerves,  > 

i-«    i«i    MVi  I  Feeling,  Taste,  ) 

1'8'181'185 1    and  Smell,        (SENTIENT 

203,  204,  205. Eye,  (    TEM, 

216 Ear,  \ 


AXIS, 


{.PHYSIOLOGY 
9YS. 
j 


HYGIENE 


-     < 

S  O 


5 


Review  by  Questions.  —  How  is  the  nervous  apparatus  divided  ?    What  can  you  say 
of  the  anatomy  of  the  brain  ?  of  the  spinal  cord  ?  of  the  cranial  nerves  ?  of  the  spinal 
nerves  ?  of  the  sympathetic  nerve?    What  can  you  tell  us  of  the  nervous  system  of 
nirds  ?  of  fishes  ?  of  insects  ?    What  can  you  state  of  the  structure  of  the  organs  o 
touch?  of  taste?  of  smell?  of  seeing?  of  hearing: 

What  can  you  say  of  the  physiology  or  use  of  each  of  the  above-named  parts  of  the 
nervous  system  ? 

What  can  you  say  of  the  education  of  these  parts?  of  the  preservation  of  health  of 
each  part  ? 

REVIEW  BT  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Anatomy,  human  and  comparative,  of  the  nervoiu 
apparatus,  the  Physiology,  the  Hygiene.  (Use  outline  anatomical,  Plates  I.,  VIII  . 
and  X.) 


PART   III. 

217.  IN  this  part  the  LOCOMOTIVE  and  PROTECTIVE 
APPARATUS  will  be  described.  This  includes  the  bones, 
muscles,  and  skin,  or  the  systems  that  form  the  walls  that 
enclose  the  organs  described  in  Parts  I.  and  II.  (Figs.  2,3.) 

Q.  What  apparatus  will  be  described  in  Part  III.?  What 
systems  under  this  apparatus  ? 


CHAPTER    I. 

218.  The  OSSEOUS  or  bony  system  will  be  described 
in  this  chapter.  In  man  and  the  inferior  animals,  the 
bones  are  covered  by  muscles  and  skin  ;  while  in  lob- 
sters, crabs,  &c.,  their  bony  framework  is  on  the  outside. 

Q.  What  system  is  described  in  Chapter  I.  How  are  the 
bones  arranged  in  man  ?  In  lobsters  ? 


LESSON    XIX. 

219.  There  are  two  hundred  and  eight  bones  in  the 
human  body  besides  the  teeth.  These,  for  convenience, 
are  divided  into  the  bones  of  the  head,  trunk,  upper  and 
lower  extremities.  (Figs.  85,  98.) 

Q.  How  many  bones  in  the  human  body  ?     How  divided  ** 

(92) 


BONES    OF   THE   HEAD.  93 

BONES   OF   THE   HEAD.* 

220.  The  bones  of  the  HEAD  include  those  of  the 
cra'ni-um,  (skull,)  ear,  and  /ace,  or  all  the  bones  above 
the  neck.    Figs.  65,  70.) 

Q.  What  do  the  bones  of  the  head  include  ? 

221.  The  CRANIUM  has  eight  bones.     These  interlock 
like    the   teeth    of  two   saws    brought    together.     This 
union  is  called  a  sut'ure.  (Fig.  70.) 

Q.  How  many  bones  in  the  cranium  ?     How  are  they  united  t 
What  is  this  union  called  ? 

Fi-.  TO. 


Fig.  70.  The  bones  of  the  head.  1.  Frontal  bone.  2.  The  rarietal 
bone.  3.  The  temporal  bone.  4.  The  occipital  bone.  5.  The  nasal 
bone.  6.  The  malar  bone.  7.  The  upper  jaw.  8.  The  os  unguis.  9. 
The  lower  jaw. 

222.  The  upper  part  of  the  head  is  an  arch,  or  dome. 

*  Let  the  skull  bones  of  animals  be  used  to  illustrate  this  lesson, 
In  connection  with  plates  and  the  blackboard.  (See  Preface.} 


94  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    ANE    HYGIENE. 

This  form  gives  great  security  to  the  parts  within  this 
cavity.  (Fig.  70.) 

Q.  What  is  the  form  of  the  cranium  ?  What  is  the  use  of 
this  form  ? 

223.  The  bones  of  the  cranium    are   thin,  and  very 
easily  broken  ;  for  this  reason,  children  should  never  be 
struck  upon  the  head.  (Fig.  70.) 

Q.  Why  should  children  never  be  struck  upon  the  head  1 

224.  The  FACE  is  composed  of  fourteen  bones  —  two 
single,  the  other  twelve  in  pairs.   (Fig.  70.) 

Q.  How  many  bones  in  the  face  ?     How  arranged  ? 

225.  These  bones  give  form  to  the  face,  and  also  pro- 
tection to  the  parts  that  are   placed   in   and  about  the 
lower  part  of  the  head.  (Fig.  70.) 

Q.  What  is  the  use  of  the  bones  of  the  face  ? 

226.  The  EAR  has  four  very  small  bones.     They  are 
enclosed  in  a  cavity  formed  by  the  bones  of  the  cranium. 
(Figs.  65,  70.) 

Q.  How  many  bones  in  the  ear  ?     Where  are  they  placed  ? 

227.  At  the  base  of  the  tongue  is  a  small  bone  shaped 
like  the  letter  U,  called  the  hy'oid.   (Fig.  46.) 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  bone  at  the  base  of  the  tongue  ? 

REVIEW. 

218,  219,  220,  221,  223,  224,  226,  227.    Anatomy     } 

222,  22-5 Physiology  >  of  the  HEAD. 

223 Hygiene       j 

Review  by  Questions.  —  How  is  the  protective  apparatus  divided  ?  How 
is  the  osseous  system  divided  ?  How  are  the  bones  of  the  head  divided  \ 
What  can  you  say  of  the  bones  of  the  cranium  ?  of  the  ear  ?  of  the  face  : 

REVIEW  BY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  bones  of  the  head,  the 
Physiology,  the  Hygiene.  (See  outline  anatomical,  Plates  I.  and  II.) 


BONES    OP    THE   TRUNK.  95 


LESSON   XX . 

228.  While  the    arrangement  of   the  bones  of   the 
skull  is  a  proof  of  the  beautiful  economy  of  Nature  in 
giving  great  strength  with  a  small  amount  of  material, 
other  bones,  as  those  of  the  trunk,  protect  lifegiving 
organs  and  also  possess  freedom  of  motion. 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  bones  of  the  head  ?     Of  the  trunk  ? 

BONES   OF  THE  TRUNK* 

229.  The  bones  of  the  TRUNK  include  those  of  the 
spi'nal  col'umn,  (back  bone,)  the  tho'rax,  (chest,)  and  the 
pel'vis,  (basin.)  (Figs.85,  98.) 

Q.  Name  the  bones  of  the  trunk. 

230.  The  SPINAL  COLUMN  is  composed  of  twenty-four 
bones.     These  are  so  arranged  that  a  tube  or  canal  is 
formed  through  the  whole  column  (Figs.  2,  71,85,98.) 

Q.  How  many  bones  in  the  spinal  column  ?     How  are  they 
arranged  1 

231.  Seven  of  these  are  called  cer'vi-cal  (neck)  bones, 
twelve  dor'sal  (back)  bones,  five  lum'bar  (loin)  bones. 

Q.  How  are  the  bones  of  the  spinal  column  divided  ? 

232.  Among  the  inferior  animals,  as  the  lion,  we  find 
an  increased  number  of  dorsal  bones.     Among  birds,  the 
number  of  neck  bones  is  increased  and  the  number  of 
dorsal   bones  are   diminished,   while   there  are  no  loin 
bones.     Among  most  reptiles,  as  the  snake,  there  are  no 

*  Use  the  ribs  and  spinal  bones  of  animals  to  illustrate  the  bones  of 
the  trunk,  in  connection  with  outline  diagrams  and  the  blackboard. 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND 


neck  or  loin  bones,  while  the  dorsal  bones  are  very  much 
increased  in  number.     The  same  is  true  with  most  fishes. 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  spinal  bones  of  the  inferior  animals  ! 
Of  birds  ?  Of  snakes  ?  Of  fishes  ? 

£33.  Between  each  bone  of  the  spinal  column  is  a 
substance  called  cartilage,  (gristle.)  By  the  yielding  of 
these  cartilages,  the  body,  to  a  certain,  extent,  can  be  bent 
in  all  directions.  (Fig.  71.) 

Q.  What  is  found  between  the  bones  of  the  spinal  column  ? 
What  is  its  use  1 


Fig.  71. 


Fig.  72. 


Fig.  71.    1,  2>  3.  The  spinal  column.    4,  5.  The  sacrum  and  coccyx 
bones  of  the  pelvis. 

Fig.  72.     The  chest  and  pelvis, 

Observation.  — •  Persons  whose  business  requires  them 
to  stand  during  the  day  are  shorter  at  night,  by  com- 


THE    TRUNK.  97 

pression  of  the  cartilages,  than  in  the  morning ;  but 
during  sleep,  the  cartilages,  by  elasticity,  regain  their 
thickness. 

Q.  Why  are  persons  that  stand  during  the  day  shorter  at  night 
than  in  the  morning  ? 

234.  To  prevent  distorted  or  curved  spines,  children 
should  walk  and  sit  erect ;  also  frequently  change  their 
position.     If  their  school  desks  require  the  spine  to  be 
bent,  they  should  alter  their  position  often  by  standing 
erect. 

Q.  What  should  children  frequently  do  to  prevent  distorted 
«pines  * 

235.  The  THORAX  is  composed  of  the  ster'num,  (breast 
bone,)  twenty-four  ribs,  and  twelve  bones  of  the  spine. 

(See  Lesson  VII.) 

f 
Q.  Of  what  is  the  thorax  composed  ? 

236.  The   PELVIS  is  composed  of  four  large  bones. 
The  back  part  of  this  basin  is  formed  of  two  bones,  which 
terminate  the  spinal  column.   (Figs.  71,  72,  85,  98.) 

Q.  How  many  bones  in  the  pelvis'?     What  bones  form  the 
•back  part  of  the  pelvis  ? 

237.  Among  reptiles  and  fishes,  the  number  of  pieces 
in  the  terminating  bone  of  the  spine  is  much  increased, 
forming  the  tail.   (Figs.  71,  87.) 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  terminal  bones  of  the  spine  of  reptiles  ? 

238.  The  pelvis  gives  support  to  the  spinal  column 
and  digestive  organs.     It  also  furnishes  the  means  of 
attachment  of  the  lower  extremities.  (Figs.  72,  85,  98.) 

Q.  What  supports  the  spine  and  digestive  organs  ?     To  what 
are  the  lower  extremities  attached  ? 
9 


98  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE, 


REVIEW. 

229,230,231,232,233,235,238,237.    Anatomy    } 

228,  233,  238 Physiology  >  of  the  TRUNK, 

228,  234 Hygiene       J 

Review  by  Questions.  —  How  are  the  bones  of  tlie  trunk  divided  ?  Wha* 
can  you  say  of  the  spinal  column  in  man  ?  in  birds  ?  in  reptiles  ?  How  are 
distorted  spines  produced  ?  how  prevented  ?  "What  can  you  tell  of  the 
thorax  ?  How  is  the  pelvis  formed  ?  What  is  its  use  ? 

REVIEW  BY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  trunk,  the  Physiology? 
the  Hygiene.  (See  outline  anatomical,  Plates  I.  and  II.) 


LESSON    XXI. 

£39.  While  the  bones  of  the  head,  chest,  and  spine- 
are  of  importance  to  the  safety  of  life,  the  bones  of  the 
upper  extremities  exceed  all  others  or  any  instrument  of 
art  in  the  variety  of  motion  and  uses  to  which  they  cars 
be  put.  (Figs.  85,  98.) 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  bones  of  the  upper  extremities  ? 

THE  UPPER  EXTREMITIES.* 

£40.  The  bones  of  the  TIPPER  EXTREMITIES  comprise 
the  shoulder,  the  arm,  the  wrist,  and  hand.  (Figs.  75, 
74,  75,  76,  85,  98.) 

Q.  Name  the  bones  of  the  upper  extremities. 

£41.  The  SHOULDER  embraces  the  scap'u-la,  (shoul- 
der blade,)  and  clav'i-cle,  (collar  bone.)  (Fig.  85.) 

Q.  What  bones  are  embraced  in  the  shoulder  1 

£4£.  The  SCAPULA  is  a  broad,  thin  bone,  and  lies  em- 
bedded in  the  fleshy  part  of  the  back.  It  can  be  moved 
in  all  directions.  (Fig.  85.) 

*  Illustrate  this  lesson  by  using  the  bones  of  animals,  outline  platefc 
an  i  the  blackboard. 


THE   UPPER    EXTREMITIES. 


99 


Q.  Describe  the  scapuli.     Are  its  movements  lira   ed  ? 

243.  The  CLAVICL*  »s  united  to  the  sterm  n  (breast 
bone)  and  scapula.  It  acts  as  a  brace  in  keeping  back 
the  shoulders.  (Figs.  72,  85,  98.) 

Q.  Describe  the  clavicle.     What  is  its  use  1 


Fig.  73. 


Fig.  74. 


mm 


Fig.  73.    The  shaft  of  the  humerus. 

Fig.  74.     1.  The  body  of  the  ulna.    2.  The  shaft  of  the  radius, 

244.  In  birds  the  clavicle  is  large  and  strong  ;  while 
in  fourfooted  animals,  as  the  horse,  it  is  wanting.  (Fig.86.) 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  clavicle  in  birds  ?     In  the  horse  and 
other  fourfooted  animals  1 

245.  The  ARM  is  composed  of  three  bones  —  the  hu,'- 


100 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


me-rus,  above  the  elbow,  and  the  ra'di-us  and  ul'na,  below 
the  elbow.  By  a  nice  adaptation  of  the  bones  below  the 
elbow,  they  can  rotate  or  twist  upon  each  other.  (FigSv 
73,  74,  85,  98.) 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  bone  above  the  elbow"?  Of  the  bones 
below  the  elbow  ? 

246.  In  the  lower  animals,  as  the  horse  and  ox,  there 
is  but  one  bone  that  corresponds  with  the  radius  and 
ulna ;  this  is  large  and  firm.  (Fig.  88.) 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  bones  that  correspond  with  the  ulna 
and  radius  in  the  lower  an 


Fig.  75. 


Fig.  76. 


F..g.  75.  u.  The  ulna.  u.  The  r  Jius.  s,  L,  c,  P,  T.  T,  M,  u.  The 
carpal  bones.  1,  1,  1,  1,  I.  The  metacarpal  bones  of  the  thumb  and 
fingers, 

Fig.  76.  10, 10, 10.  The  metacarpal  bones  of  the  hand.  11, 11.  First 
range  of  finger  bores.  12,  12.  Second  range  of  ringer  bones.  13,  13- 
Third  raa^e  of  f.nger  bones.  14,  15.  Bones  of  the  thumb. 

247.  The  V/RIST  (carpus)  consists  of  eight  irregular 
bones.  They  are  closely  bound  together,  and  have  but 
little  mution.  (Figs.75.  85,  98.) 


THE   UPPER    EXTREMITIES.  101 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  wrist  ? 

248.  The   HAND   (metacarpus)   has   five  bones.     To 
these  are  united  the  fourteen  bones  of  the  fingers  and 
thumbs,  (pha-lan'ges.}  (Figs.  75,  76,  85,  98.) 

Q.  Describe  the  hand. 

249.  In  the  inferior  animals  there  are  but  one,  or  at 
most  two  bones  that  correspond  with  the  fingers  of  man. 
These  are  only  used  to  support  the  animals. 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  finger  bones  in  animals  ? 

250.  The  bones  of  the  fingers  and  thumb  are  so  ar- 
ranged that  we  can  grasp  a  body  of  any  shape  with  great 
firmness.     Owing  to  the  different  length  of  the  fingers, 
we  can  grasp  with  greater  ease  a  round  body.  (Fig.  76.) 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  use  of  the  thumb  and  fingers  * 

REVIEW. 

240,  241,  242,  243,  244,  245,  246,  S17,  248,  249.    Anatomy     )   f    ,     -, 
239,242,243,245,247,249,250 


Review  by  Questions.  —  What  do  the  upper  extremities  comprise  ?  What 
can  you  say  of  the  shoulder  ?  of  the  scapula  ?  of  the  clavicle  ?  What  can 
you  tell  of  the  arm  ?  What  can  you  relate  of  the  wrist  ?  What  can  you 
state  of  the  hand  ? 

REVIEW  BY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  upper  extremities,  the 
Physiology,  the  Hygiene.  (See  outline  anatomical,  Plates  I.  and  II.) 

LESSON    XXII. 


£51.  The  bones  of  the  lower  are  larger  th*n  those  of 
the  upper  extremities.  Their  motion  is  not  so  varied  ; 
yet  they  support  the  body  ;  and  by  them  we  are  able  to 
ramble  the  fields  and  forests.  (Figs.  85,  98.) 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  bones  of  the  lower  extremities  ? 
9* 


102 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,   AND    HYGIENE. 


THE  LOWER  EXTREMITIES.* 

252.  The  bones  of  the  LOWER  EXTREMITIES  comprise 
those  of  the  leg  and  those  of  the  foot.  (Figs.  77,78,79.) 
Q.  Name  the  bones  of  the  lower  extremities  ? 


Fig.  77. 


Fig.  78. 


Fig.  77.     1.  The  shaft  of  the  femur,  (thigh  bone.) 
Fig.  78.     1.  The  tibia.    5.  The  fibula, 

253.  The  LEG  contains  the  fe'mur,  (thigh  bone,)  the 

*  Illustrate  this  lesson  by  using  the  bones  of  animals  and  birds,  with 
outline  diagrams  and  the  blackboard. 


THE    LOWER   EXTREMITIES.  103 

tib'i-n  and  fib'u-la,  (shin  bones,)  and  pa-tel'la,  (knee 
pan.)  (Figs.  77,  78,  98.) 
Q.  Name  the  bones  of  the  leg. 

254.  The  bones  of  the  leg,  with  the  exception  of  the 
patella,  are  round,  and  larger  at  the  extremities  than  at 
the  centre.  (Figs.  77,  78,  85,  98.) 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  shape  of  the  bones  of  the  leg  ? 
Remark.  —  The  bones  of  the   leg    correspond  with 
those  of  the  arm. 

Q.  Do  the  bones  of  the  leg  and  arm  correspond  ? 

255.  The  FOOT  contains  the  tar'sus,  met-a-tar'sm,  and 
pha-lan'ges,  (toes.)  (Figs,  79,  80.) 

Fig.  79. 


Fig.  79.  A  representation  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  bones  of  the 
foot.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8.  The  bones  of  the  tarsus.  9,  9,  9.  The  meta- 
tarsal  bones.  10.  The  first  bone  of  the  great  toe.  11.  The  second  bone. 
12,  13,  U.  Three  ranges  of  bones,  forming  the  small  too?. 

256.  The  TARSUS  (ankle  bones)  are  seven  in  number. 
They  are  bound  together  like  those  of  the  wrist,  and 
have  but  little  motion.   (Figs.  79,  80.) 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  tarsus  ? 

257.  The    METATARSUS  contains  five  bones.     These, 
with  the  tarsal  bones,  form  the  arch  of  the  foot.     By  the 
form  of  the  foot,  jars  or  concussions  of  the  brain  are 
prevented  in  running  and  leaping.   (Figs.  79,  80.) 


104  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

Q.  How  many  metatarsal  bones  ?  What  is  the  form  of  ih& 
foot  ?  What  does  this  form  prevent  ? 

258.  The  PHALANGES  (bones  of  the  toes)  are  fourteen 
in  number.  These  bones  are  smaller  than  those  of  the 
fingers,  and  their  motion  is  more  limited ;  yet  persons 
with  no  hands  have  been  able  to  use  scissors,  pencil,  and 
knife  with  the  toes.  (Figs.  79,  80.) 

Q.  How  many  toes  are  there?  What  is  said  of  their  size? 
Their  motion  ?  Their  use  1 

Fig.  8<X 


Fig.  80.  A  side  view  of  the  bones  of  the  foot,  showing  its  arched 
form.  The  arch  rests  upon  the  heel  behind,  and  the  ball  of  the  toes  in- 
front.  1.  The  lower  part  of  the  tibia.  2,  3,  4,  5.  Bones  of  the  tarsus. 
6.  The  metatarsal  bone.  7,  8,  The  bones  of  the  great  toe.  These  bones- 
are  so  united  as  to  secure  a  great  degree  of  elasticity,  or  spring. 

KEVIEW, 

252,  253,  254,  255,  256,  257,  258.    Anatomy    ^  of  the  L(mEK 

251,258 Physiology  *>  ExTKEMITIE8. 

257 Hygiene       j 

Review  by  Questions.  —  What  bones  do  the  lower  extremities  comprise  ? 
What  can  you  say  of  the  bones  of  the  leg  ?  What  can  you  tell  of  the- 
foot  ?  of  the  tarsus  ?  of  the  metatarsus  ?  of  the  phalanges  ? 

Rr.viEW  BY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  lower  extremities,  HLQ 
Physiology,  the  Hygiene.  (See  outline  anatomical,  Plates  I.  and  114 


COMPOSITION    OF    BONES.  105 


LESSON    XXIII. 

259.  The  bones,  like  other  parts  of  the  body,  are 
composed  of  solids  acd  fluids,  as  well  as  of  different  ele- 
ments, or  atoms  of  matter.     The  relative  proportions  of 
solids  and  fluids  vary  at  different  periods  of  life,  and  so 
do  the  chemical  elements  that  enter  into  their  composition. 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  composition  of  bones  ? 

COMPOSITION  OF  BONES.* 

260.  The  bones  are  surrounded  by  a  thin,  firm  mem- 
brane, called  per-i-os'te-um. 

Q.  With  what  are  the  bones  surrounded  ? 

Remark.  —  In  felon  and  fever  sore,  the  disease  com- 
mences in  the  periosteum.  An  early  opening  is  the 
best  treatment. 

Q.  What  is  the  best  treatment  of  felon  and  fever  sore  ? 

261.  The  bones  are  composed  of  cartilage  and  salts 
of  lime. 

Q.  Of  what  are  the  bones  composed  ? 

Remark.  — The  cartilage  contains  gel'a-tin,  ("jelly,") 
while  the  salts  are  the  carbonate  and  phosphate  of  lime. 

Q.  What  does  cartilage  contain  ?  What  salts  exist  in  the 
bones  ? 

Experiments.  —  1.  To  show  the  materials  that  enter 
into  the  composition  of  bones,  take  one  and  lay  it  upon 
the  fire.  The  heat  will  destroy  the  gelatin,  and  the 
bone  will  become  white  and  brittle. 

*  Illustrate  this  lesson  by  performing  the  experiments  and  using  the 
dry  and  fresh  bones  of  animals. 


106  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

2.  Take  another  bone  and  put  it  into  a  weak  solution 
of  chloric  acid,  and  in  a  few  days  the  salts  of  lime  will 
be  removed,  and  the  cartilage  that  remains  can  be  knotted 
or  twisted  at  pleasure. 

Q.  Give  the  experiments  in  reference  to  the  composition  of 
bones.  What  do  these  experiments  snow  ? 


Fig.  81.  Fig.  82. 


Fig.  81.  The  position  assumed  when  the  seat  is  of  proper  height  and 
the  feet  supported. 

Fig.  82.  The  position  a  child  naturally  assumes  when  the  seat  is  so 
high  that  the  feet  are  not  supported. 


In  early  life  the  cartilage,  or  soft  parts  of  the 
bone,  exists  in  great  quantity.  In  old  age,  the  salts  of 
lime  are  most  abundant.  In  children,  the  bones  are 
therefore  more  easily  bent  or  distorted  than  in  old  age, 
while  in  old  age  they  are  easily  broken. 

Q.  At  what  period  of  life  is  gelatin  most  abundant  ?     Why  do 


COMPOSITION    OF    BONES.  107 

the  bones  of  children  bend  more  easily  than  aged  persons  ?    Why 
are  the  bones  of  the  aged  easily  broken  ? 

Remarks.  —  1.  Young  children  should  not  stand  a 
long  time,  as  the  bones  of  the  leg  bend  easily,  producing 
crooked  limbs. 

£.  Their  clothing  should  be  loose  about  the  chest,  as 
the  ribs  are  not  only  small,  but  soft  and  yielding,  in 
childhood. 

3.  The  seats  of  small  children  should  be  low,  so  that 
their  feet  may  be  supported.   (Fig.  81.) 

4.  The  back  of  their  seats  should  be  convex  or  curved 
towards  the  body,  and  reach  no  higher  than  the  shoulder 
blades,  so  as  to  support  the  loins,  or  ce  small  of  the  back." 
(Fig.  81.) 

Q.  What  is  the  first  remark  relating  to  the  bones  of  children  1 
The  second  ?  The  third  ?  The  fourth  ? 

REVIEW. 

260.  .    Anatomy     } 

261.  .    Physiology  >  of  the  COMPOSITION  OF  BONES. 

262.  .    'Hygiene       ) 

Rcvieic  by  Questions.  —  What  can  you  say  of  the  periosteum  ?  of  felons 
and  fever  sores  ?  What  can  you  tell  of  the  composition  of  the  bones  ? 
State  the  experiments.  What  can  you  say  of  the  clothing  and  seats  for 
children  ? 

REVIEW  BY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  composition  of  the  bones,  their  Physi- 
ology, their  Hygiene. 

LESSON    XXIV. 

263.  To  secure  freedom  of  motion,  the  divine  Framer 
of  our  body  made  it  of  several  pieces  instead  of  one 
solid  bone.  The  union  of  these  pieces  is  called  a 
joint. 


108 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


THE   JOINTS* 

£64.  The  JOINTS  are  of  two  kinds  —  immovable  and 
movable. 

Q.  How  many  kinds  of  joints  ?     What  are  they? 

£65.  In  an  IMMOVABLE  joint  there  is  a  direct  union 
of  the  bones,  as  in  the  skull,  face,  &c.  (Fig.  70.) 

Q.  Describe  an  immovable  joint. 


Fig.  84. 


Fig.  83.  The  relative  position  of  the  bones,  cartilages,  and  synovial 
membrane  in  a  joint.  1,  1.  The  extremities  of  two  bones  that  concur  to 
form  a  joint.  2,  2.  The  cartilages  that  cover  the  end  of  the  bones.  3,  3, 
3,  3.  The  synovial  membrane,  which  covers  the  cartilage  of  both  bones, 
and  is  then  doubled  back  from  one  to  the  other.  It  is  represented  by  the 
dotted  lines. 

Fig.  84.  A  vertical  section  of  the  knee  joint.  1.  The  femur.  3.  The 
patella.  5.  The  tibia.  2,  4.  The  ligaments  of  the  patella.  6.  The  car- 
tilage of  the  tibia.  12.  The  cartilage  of  the  femur.  *  ***.  The  syno- 
vial membrane. 

£66.  In  MOVABLE  joints,  the  surfaces  of  the  bones  do 
not  come  in  contact ;  but  the  ends  of  the  bones   are 


*  Illustrate  this  lesson  by  using  the  joints  of  animals,  by  diagrams 
and  the  blackboard. 


THE    JOINTS.  109 

tipped  with  cartilage,  (gristle,)  and  they  are  bound  to- 
gether by  bands  called  lig'a-ments.  (Figs.  85,  98.) 

Q.  Describe  the  union  of  a  movable  joint 

267.  Covering  the  cartilages  and  lining  the  ligaments 
is  a  closed  sac  called  syn-o'm-almem'brane,  which  con- 
tains a  glairy  fluid  called  syn-o'vi-a,  (joint  water.)  This 
fluid  lessens  the  friction  of  the  joints  as  oil  does  in  ma- 
chinery. (Figs.  83,  84.) 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  synovial  membrane  ?     Of  the  synovia  ? 

Remark.  —  1.  The  synovial  membrane,  as  a  closed 
sac,  can  -  be  illustrated  by  the  lining  membrane  of  an 
egg  shell. 

2.  When  joints  are  sprained  or  inflamed,  the  "best 
healing  salve  "  is  rest.     This  should  be  applied  as  soon 
as  the  joint  is  injured,  and  should  be  continued  until  the 
injured  part  recovers. 

3.  When  the  joints  of  animals  are  injured,  they  should 
be  permitted  to  rest  until  restored. 

Q.  How  can,  the  synovial  membrane  be  illustrated  ?  What  is 
necessary  when  a  joint  is  sprained  ?  How  should  the  injured 
joints  of  animals  be  treated  I 

REVIEW. 

264,265,266,267.    .    Anatomy      ) 

263,  266,  267.  •    .    .    Physiology  >  of  the  JOINTS. 

267 Hygiene        ) 

Review  by  Questions.  —  How  many  kinds  of  joints  ?  What  can  you  tell 
of  immovable  joints  ?  of  movable  joints  ?  "What  can  you  say  of  sprained 
joints  in  man  ?  in  animals  ? 

REVIEW  BY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  joints,  the  Physiology 
the  Hygiene.  (See  outline  anatomical,  Plates  I.  and  II.) 

10 


110 


REVIEW    LESSON. 


Fig.  85. 


Fig.  85.  Back  view  of  human  skeleton.  1.  The  head.  2,  2.  The  spinal  column 
3.  The  ribs.  4.  The  sacrum.  5.  The  pelvis.  6.  The  scapula.  7.  The  humerus.  8 
The  radius.  9.  The  ulna.  10.  The  carpus.  11.  The  femur.  12.  The  tibia.  13.  The 
fibula.  14.  The  tarsus. 

Fig.  86.    Skeleton  of  the  vulture. 

Fig.  87.    Skeleton  of  the  perch. 


REVIEW    OF    THE    OSSEOUS    SYSTEM. 
Fig.  88. 


Ill 


Fig.  88.    Skeleton  of  the  camel 


SYNTHETIC  REVIEW   OF  THE  OSSEOUS  SYSTEM. 


218,  219,  220,  221,  223,  ) 
224,226,227.  .  .  .  j 
229,  230,  231,  232,  233,  J 
235,  236,  237.  .  .  .  \ 
240,  241,  242,  243,  244,  ) 
245,  246,  247,  248,  249.  \ 
252,  253,  254,  255,  256,  1 
257,258.  .  .  ...  .) 
260  ...".... 

Head, 
Trunk, 

Upper  extremities, 

Lower  extremities, 
Composition  of  bones, 

2fi4,  2f>5,  266,  267.  .    . 
200  225               .     .     . 

Joints. 
Head,                            \ 

233'  238 

Trunk, 

242',  243,  244,  245,  2-16,  ( 
247,249,250.  .  .  .' 
251  258  .  .  . 

Upper  extremities. 
Lower  extremities, 

261 

Composition  of  bones, 

263,266,267.      ... 
221                      .    .    . 

Joints, 
Head, 

228  234  .  .  . 

Trunk, 

257  258  

Upper  extremities, 
Lower  extremities, 

262  

Composition  of  bones, 

267.  . 

Joints, 

PHTSIOLOQT 


of  the  OSSEOUS  SYS- 
TEM. (Figs.  85,  86, 
87,  88.) 


Review  by  Questions.  —  What  can  you  say  of  the  anatomy  of  the  bones  of  the  heir!  r 
of  the  trunk  :  of  the  upper  extremities  ?  of  the  lower  extremities  ?  What  can  you  t*tl 
of  the  composition  of  the  bones  ?  What  can  you  state  of  the  joints  ? 

What  can  you  tell  of  the  use  of  the  above-named  parts  ? 

What  can  you  state  of  the  means  to  preserve  the  health  of  the  osseous  system  : 

RCTIXW  BT  TOPICS.— Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  osseous  system,  the  Physiology, 
the  Hygiene.  (Use  outline  anatomical,  Plates  I.  and  II.) 


112  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


CHAPTEE    II. 

268.  THE  sailor  boy  would  tell  you  that  the  masts  and 
yards  of  his  "floating  house"  are  kept  in  place,  and 
their  position  changed,  by  means  of  ropes.     So  the  frame- 
work of  the  "house  we  live  in"  is  kept  in  place,  and 
the  position  changed,  by  means  of  elastic  or  springing 
organs  called  mus'des.  (Figs.  94,  E.) 

Q.  To  what  are  the  muscles  compared  ?  % 

LESSON   XXV. 

269.  The  mind  directs  some  movements,  as  those  of 
the  arm.     Other  movements,  as  those  of  the  heart  and 
stomach,  are  not  subject  to  the  mind.     Both,  however, 
are  produced  by  the  action  of  muscles.    (Figs.  94,  E.) 

Q.  How  are  the   movements   directed  ?     What   produces  all  • 
movements l. 

MUSCLES* 

270.  The  MUSCLES  are  composed  of  fi'lres,  fas'ci-cE, 
and  ten'dons.   (Fig.  89.) 

Q.  Of  what  are  the  muscles  composed  ? 

271.  FIBRES  are  the  small  threads  that  compose  the 
muscle.     These  form  the  swell,  or  belly,  of  the  muscle. 
(Fig.  89.) 

Q.  Define  fibre.     What  do  they  form  1 

*  Illustrate  this  lesson  by  using  lean  pork,  boiled,  or  the  drumstick 
of  a  fowl,  with  outline  diagrams  and  the  blackboard.    (See  Preface.) 


MUSCLES.  113 

272.  The  FASCIA  is  a  thin,  white  membrane  that  sur- 
rounds the  body,  limbs,  muscles,  and  also  every  fibre  of 
all  the  muscles.  (Figs.  89,  94,  E,  100.) 

Q.  Describe  the  fascia. 

273.  The  TENDON,  or  cord,  at  each  extremity  of  the 
muscle  is  formed  by  a  union  of  the  fasciae  that  surrounds 
the  fibres  as  well  as  the  muscle.     These    tendons    are 
attached  to   the   periosteum,  or  covering  of  the  bone. 
(Kg.  89.) 

Q.  How  are  the  tendons  formed  ?     To  what  are  they  attached 1 
Fig.  89. 


Fig.  89.  A  representation  of  the  manner  in  which  all  the  joints  of 
the  body  are  moved.  1.  The  bone  of  the  arm  above  the  elbow.  2.  One 
of  the  bones  below  the  elbow.  3.  The  muscle  that  bends  the  elbow. 
This  muscle  is  united,  by  a  tendon,  to  the  bone  below  the  elbow,  (4;)  at 
the  other  extremity,  to  the  bone  above  the  elbow,  (5.)  6.  The  muscle 
that  extends  the  elbow.  7.  Its  attachment  to  the  point  of  the  elbow. 
8.  A  weight  in  the  hand  to  be  raised.  The  central  part  of  the  muscle,  (3,) 
contracts,  and  its  two  ends  are  brought  nearer  together.  The  bones  be- 
low the  elbow  are  brought  to  the  lines  shown  by  9,  10,  11.  The  weight 
is  raised  in*the  direction  of  the  curved  line.  "When  the  muscle  6  con- 
tracts, the  muscle  3  relaxes  and  the  fore  arm  is  extended. 

274.  The  tendon  at  one  end  of  a  muscle  is  attached  to 
10* 


114  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

the  covering  of  a  bone,  while  the  tendon  of  the  opposite 

Fig.  90.  Fig.  91. 


Fig.  90.  1.  A  perpendicular  line  from  the  centre  of  the  feet  to  the  up 
per  extremity  of  the  spinal  column,  where  the  head  rests.  2,  2,  2.  The 
spinal  column,  with  its  three  natural  curves.  Here  the  head  and  body 
are  balanced  upon  the  spinal  column  and  joints  of  the  lower  extrem- 
ities, so  that  the  muscles  are  not  kept  in  a  state  of  tension.  This  erect 
position  of  the  body  and  head  is  always  accompanied  with  straight 
lower  limbs. 

Fig.  91.  1.  A  perpendicular  line  from  the  centre  of  the  feet.  2  Rep- 
resents the  unnatural  curved  spinal  column  and  its  relative  position  to 
the  perpendicular,  (1.)  The  lower  limbs  are  curved  at  the  knee,  and  the 
body  is  stooping  forward.  "While  standing  in  this  position,  the  muscles 
of  the  lower  limbs  and  back  are  in  continued  tension,  which  exhausts 
itnd  weakens  them. 


ES.  115 

end  is  fixed  to  the  covering  of  another  bone.  (Fig. 
89.) 

Q.  How  are  the  tendons  attached  to  bones  ? 

275.  By  the  contraction  of  the  fibres  of  the  muscle, 
the  position  of  one  of  the  bones  is  changed.  (Fig.  89.) 

Q.  How  is  the  position  jof  bones  changed  ? 

£76:  All  the  movements  of  the  body  are  made  by  the 
muscles  contracting. 

Q.  How  are  the  movements  of  the  body  made  ? 

277.  The  INVOLUNTARY  movements  are  those  we  can- 
not control  —  as  of  the  ribs  when  we  breathe. 

Q.  What  are  involuntary  movements "? 

278.  The  VOLUNTARY  movements  are  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  will  —  as  walking,  nodding  the  head,  swing- 
ing the  arms,  and  others  done  at  our  pleasure. 

Q.  What  are  voluntary  movements  ? 

279.  In  standing,  walking,  or  sitting,  the  erect  po- 
sition is  the  best,  as  well  as  the  easiest.      Care  should  be 
taken  that  the  position  is  frequently  varied,  particularly 
in  children.  (Figs.  90,  91.) 

0    What  r  xdition  is  best  I     What  care  should  be  exercised? 

REVIEW. 

270,271,272,273,274.   .    .    Anatomy     ) 

268,  269,  275,  276,  277,  278.     Physiology  >  of  the  MUSCLES. 

279 Hygiene       } 

Review  by  Questions.  —  Of  what  are  muscles  composed  ?    What  can  you 

say  of  1he  fibres  ?  of  the  fasciae  ?   of  the  tendons  ?  of  the  contraction  and 

relaxation  of  muscles  ?    of  the  movements  of  the  body  ?    of  involuntary 

movements  ?  of  voluntary  movements  ?     What  is  said  of  position  in  stand- 

ijr,  writing,  and  sitting  ? 

REVIEW  BY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  muscles,  the  Physiol 
ogy,  the  Hygiene.     (See  outline  anatomical,  Plates  III.  and  IV.) 


116  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


LESSON    XXVI. 

280.  When  muscles  are  used  certain  conditions  should 
exist,  so  that  their  action  may  not  only  be  energetic  and 
controllable,  but  healthy.     Some  of  these  conditions  will 
be  suggested  in  this  lesson. 

Q.  What  is  the  subject  of  this  lesson  ? 

MUSCLES,  (CONTINUED.) 

281.  "When   MUSCLES    have   been  used  they  become 
tired  or  exhausted,  and  need  rest  or  relaxation.     The 
recesses  in  school  rest  the  muscles  of  the  pupil,  because 
the  position  is,  or  should  be,  changed. 

Q.  Why  do  the  used  muscles  need  rest  ?  What  is  said  of  re- 
cesses in  schools  1 

Remark.  —  Young  and  feeble  persons  require  more 
frequent  change  of  position  than  old  and  strong  per- 
sons. This  is  particularly  true  with  children,  if  growing 
rapidly. 

Q.  What  persons  need  the  most  frequent  change  of  position  ? 

282.  The  COLOR  of  a  muscle  depends  upon  the  color 
of  the  blood.     If  that  is  white,  the  color  of  the  muscle 
is  white.     If  it  is  red,  the  color  of  the  muscle  is  red. 

Q.  Upon  what  does  the  color  of  a  muscle  depend  ? 

283.  PURE  BLOOD  is  essential  to  the  health  and  strength 
of  a  muscle.     If  the  air  of  a  room  is  impure,  the  blood 
becomes  impure  ;  consequently  the  muscles  are  soon  ex- 
hausted, and  we  feel  restless. 

Q.  What  is  necessary  to  the  health  and  strength  of  a  muscle  ? 
What  condition  of  the  blood  causes  exhaustion  and  restlessness  ' 


MUSCLES. 


117 


Remark.  -^  The  restlessness  of  children  in  a  school 
room  may  be  diminished  or  removed  by  ventilating  the 
room. 

Q.  How  can  the  restlessness  of  children  in  the  school  room  be 
diminished  ? 


Fig.  92. 


Fig.  93. 


Fig.  92.     An  improper,  but  not  an  unusual,  position  when  writing. 
Fig.  93.    A  proper  position  when  writing. 

284.  The  muscles   should    be  gradually  called   into 
use,  if  we  do  not  wish  to  weary  them  too  soon.     This 
remark  should  not  be  forgotten  in  driving  horses  and 
other  animals. 

Q.  How  should  we  use  the  muscles  ?     What  remark  in  refer 
ence  to  driving  animals '? 

285.  After  hard  work  or  severe  exercise,  the  muscles 
should    be  rested   gradually  and  the   skin    thoroughly 
washed  or  rubbed.     This  principle  also  applies  to  horses. 

(Seep.  120.) 


118 


REVIEW   LESSON. 


Fig.  94. 


Fig.  E. 


fis  94  A  front  view  of  the  muscles.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8.  Muscles  of  the  head 
and  face!  9.  Muscles  of  the  neck.  10,  11,  12,  13,  14,  15,  16,  17,  18,  19,  20.  Milled 
of  upper  extremities.  22.  Muscles  of  the  body.  26,  27,  28,  29,  30,  31,  32,  33,  34,  30, 
Muscles  of  lower  extremities. 


REVIEW    OF   THE   MUSCULAR   SYSTEM.  119 

Fig.  E.  A  back  view  of  the  muscles  of  the  body.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7.  Muscles  of  the 
head  and  neck.  8,  10,  13,  14,  15,  16,  17,  18,  19,  20,  21,  22,  43.  Muscles  of  the  upper 
extremities.  9,  11,  12,  24,  25,  26.  Muscles  of  the  body.  27,  28, 29,  30,  31, 32,  33.  Mufr 
cles  of  the  lower  extremities. 

Practical  Explanation.  The  muscle  1,  fig.  94,  by  its  contraction,  raises  the  eyebrows. 
The  muscle  2,  fig.  94,  closes  the  eyelids  The  muscle  3,  fig.  94,  elevates  the  upper  lip. 
The  muscles  4,  5,  fig.  94,  elevate  the  angles  of  the  mouth.  The  muscles  6,  fig.  94, 
and  5,  fig.  E,  bring  the  teeth  together.  The  muscles  7,  fig.  94,  closes  the  mouth.  The 
muscle  8,  fig.  94,  depresses  the  lower  lip.  The  muscles  9,  fig.  94,  and  6,  fig.  E,  bend 
the  neck  forward.  The  muscles  3,  4,  fig.  E,  elevate  the  head  and  chin.  The  muscle 
22,  fig.  94,  bends  the  body  forward,  and  draws  the  ribs  downward.  The  muscle  11, 
fig.  94,  brings  the  shoulder  forward.  The  muscle  7,  fig.  E,  draws  the  shoulder  back. 
The  muscles  10,  fig.  94,  and  8,  fig.  E,  elevate  the  arm.  The  muscles  11,  fig.  94,  and  24, 
fig.  E,  bring  the  arm  to  the  side.  The  muscle  14,  fig.  94,  bends  the  arm  at  the  elbow. 
The  muscle  10,  fig.  E,  extends  the  arm  at  the  elbow.  The  muscles  16,  18,  fig.  94, 
bend  the  wrist  and  fingers.  The  muscle  19  bends  the  fingers.  The  muscles  18,21,23, 
fig.  E,  extend  the  wrist.  The  muscle  23,  fig.  E,  extends  the  fingers.  The  muscles  26, 
27,  28,  fig.  94,  bend  the  lower  limbs  on  the  body,  at  the  hip.  The  muscle  28,  fig.  94, 
draws  one  leg  over  the  other,  (the  position  of  a  tailor  when  sewing.)  The  muscles 
27,  28,  fig.  E,  extend  the  lower  limbs  on  the  body,  at  the  hip.  The  muscles  29,  30,  31  f 
fig.  94,  extend  the  leg  at  the  knee.  The  muscles  29,  30,  fig.  E,  bend  the  leg  at  the 
knee.  The  muscles  34,  36,  fig.  94,  bend  the  foot  at  the  ankle,  and  extend  the  to«». 
The  muscles  31,  32, 33,  fig.  E,  extend  the  foot  at  the  ankle. 


SYNTHETIC  KEVIEW  OF   THE  MUSCULAR  SYSTEM. 


270,271,272,273,274.    Muscles, 

Muscles,  continued, 


268,  269,  275,  276,  277,  )  Muades,  } 

278  ........  )  C  PHTSIOLOGT 

281,  282,  283.     .    .    .    Muscles,  continued,  ) 


279  ........    Muscles, 


of  the  MtJscrLAH 
SYSTEM.  (Fig. 
94.) 


Review  by  Questions.  —  What  can  you  tell  of  a  muscle  ?  of  its  fascia  ?  oi 
its  fibres  ?  of  its  tendons  ?  of  the  attachment  of  tendons  to  bones  ? 

What  can  you  state  of  the  contraction  of  a  muscle  ?  of  its  relaxation  ? 
What  are  voluntary  movements  ?  involuntary  movements  ? 

What  can  you  say  of  position  ?  of  rest  :  What  should  be  the  quality  of 
the  blood  in  muscles  ?  How  should  muscles  be  called  into  action  ?  ho* 
rested  ?  How  used  to  prevent  disease  ?  How  is  skilful  motion  attained  ? 

REVIEW  BT  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  muscles,  the  Physiology, 
the  Hygiene.  (Use  outline  anatomical,  Plates  III.  and  IV.) 


120  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

Q.  How  should  the  muscles  be  rested  and  skin  treated  after 
severe  exercise  1  How  with  horses  ? 

Remark.  - —  Rheumatism  and  other  painful  diseases  of 
the  fasciee  and  tendons  of  the  muscles,  as  well  as  the 
periosteum  and  ligaments  of  bones,  are  caused  by  sitting 
in  a  current  of  air  after  severe  exercise  of  the  muscles* 

Q.  What  will  cause  rheumatism  ? 

286.  SKILFUL  MOTION  is  attained  by  the  proper  train- 
ing or  education  of  the  muscles.     The  more  correct  the 
training  of  the  muscles  in  childhood,  the  more  graceful 
are  the  movements  in  adult  age. 

Q.  How  is  skilful  motion  acquired?  How  are  graceful 
movements  in  adults  attained  ? 

287.  In  teaching  writing,  not  only  the  position  of  the 
pen  and  the  form  of  the  letter  should  be  noticed,  but 
the  position  of  the  body,  head,  and  arm  should  be  cor- 
rect. (Figs.  92,  93.) 

Q.  What  is  said  relative  to  writing  1 

288.  There  is  a  constant  change  in  the  substance  of 
muscle  when  used.     The  wornout  atoms  of  matter  are 
removed  and  returned  to  the  heart  in  the  blood,  while 
new  atoms  are  supplied  through  the  blood  as  it  comes 
from  the  heart.  (Figs.  28,  29,  39,  40,  42.) 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  change  of  muscles  when  used  I  How 
is  the  wornout  matter  removed  ?  How  is  new  matter  supplied l 


REVIEW. 

Anatomy     ~\ 

281,282,283.     >    , Physiology  V  of  the  MUSCLES. 

281,  282,  283,  284,  285,  286,  287,  288.   .    Hygiene      ) 

Review  by  Questions.  —  How  should  muscles  be  used  ?  Upon  what  does 
the  color  of  a  muscle  depend  ?  What  is  said  of  the  blood  of  a  muscle  ? 
How  should  muscles  be  called  into  action  ?  How  should  muscles  be  rested  : 
How  is  skilful  motion  attained  ?  What  is  said  of  writing  ? 

REVIEW  BY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Anatomy  of  this  lesson,  the  Physiology 
the  Hygiene.  (See  anatomical  Plates  III.  and  IV.)  KEVIEW  LESSON, 
page  118. 


THE   CUTICLE. 


CHAPTER    III. 

0 

289.  IN  this  chapter  we  shall  treat  of  the  part  that 
is,  in  a  striking  manner,  a  "  puller  down  "  of  the  body. 
The  human  system  is  in  a  state  of  constant  decay  and 
renovation,  and  the  membrane  that  covers  the  animal 
frame  forms  one  of  the  principal  outlets,  or  drains,  by 
which  the  old,  altered,  or  useless  atoms  of  matter  escape 
from  the  body. 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  membrane  that  covers  the   human 
frame! 

LESSON    XXVII. 

290.  The  means  of  defence  in  man  do  not  consist  in 
a  thick  or  scaly  covering,  but  in  a  delicate  and  sensitive 
membrane  that  envelops  the  body.     This  is  called  the 
cu'tis,  or  skin.     It  is  divided  into  two  layers  —  the  out- 
ermost, called  the  cu/ti-de,  (scarf  skin ;)  the  inner,  called 
the  cu'tis  ve'ra,  (true  skin.)  (Fig.  95.) 

Q.  Of  how  many  layers  is  the  skin  composed?     What  are 
they  called  ? 

THE   CUTICLE.* 

291.  The    CUTICLE  is  a  thin  membrane.     It  has  no 
blood  vessels  or  nerves.     For  this  reason,  when  it  is  cut 

*  Illustrate  this  lesson  by  experiments,  outline  plates,  and  the  black- 
hoard. 

11 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


it  neither  bleeds,  nor  is  there  pain  felt.     It  is  the  layer 
of  the  skin  that  is  raised  in  blisters.  (Fig.  95.) 

Q.  Describe  the  cuticle.  Which  layer  of  the  skin  is  raised 
in  blisters  ? 

Experiment.  —  To  show  that  the  cuticle  has  no  nerves 
or  blood  vessels,  pass  a  pin  though  the  portion  that  skirts 
the  nails,  or  shave  a  thin  piece  from  the  palm  of  the 
hand. 

Q.  How  can  you  show  that  the  cuticle  has  no  blood  vessels 
or  nerves  ? 


Fig.  95. 


Fig.  95.  1,1.  The  cuticle.  2,  2.  The  colored  layer  of  the  cuticle. 
4,  4.  The  network  of  nerves.  5,  5.  The  true  skin.  6,  6,  6.  Three  nerves 
that  divide  to  form  the  network. 

292.  The  cuticle  contains  a  chemical  substance  called 
al'Lu-men.     It  exists  nearly  pure  in  the  white  of  an  egg. 

Q.  What  chemical  substance  does  the  cuticle  contain  1  Where 
does  it  exist  nearly  pure  ? 

293.  Dried   albumen  is  softened  by  alkali,   as   soda 
and  soap,  but  hardened  by  alcohol  or  vinegar.     Hence 


THE    CUTICLE.  123 

in  fevers,  or  when  the  skin  is  dry  and  inactive,  bathe 
with  pure  water,  or  water  that  contains  a  small  amount 
of  alkali. 

Q.  How  is  dried  albumen  softened  ?  How  hardened  1  What 
should  we  bathe  with  in  fevers  ? 

294.  The  under  surface  of  the  cuticle   contains  the 
coloring  matter  of  the  skin.     In  the  African  it  is  black  ; 
in  the  Indian  it  is  copper  colored ;  in  the  European  it 
varies  with  the  race.  (Fig.  95.) 

Q.  Where  is  the  coloring  matter  found  that  gives  the  skin  its 
different  hues  ? 

295.  The  cuticle  varies  in  thickness  in  different  parts 
of  the  body,  from  the  delicate  skin  upon  the  lips  to  the 
thick  and  almost  horny  covering  of  the  palms  of  the 
hands  and  soles  of  the  feet. 

Q.  Does  the  cuticle  vary  in  thickness  in  different  parts  of  thft 
body? 

296.  The   cuticle  is   thickened  by  gradual  exercise. 
This  is  a  kind  provision  of  the  Creator,  as  it  affords  in- 
creased protection  to  those  persons  engaged  in  manual 
employments, 

Q.  How  is  the  cuticle  thickened '?  Wherein  is  the  result  a 
kind  provision  of  the  Creator  ? 

297.  The  cuticle,  when  removed,  is  formed  again  by 
atoms  of  matter  from  the  blood  vessels  of  the  inner  layer 
of  the  skin.     This  material  is  at  first    quite  soft,  but 
gradually  hardens  so  as  to  shield  the  highly  sensitive 
layer  of  the  skin. 

Q.  When  the  cuticle  is  removed,  how  is  it  reproduced  ? 

Illustration.  — The  inner  bark  of  a  tree  is  much  softer 
than  the  outer.  In  spring  the  inner  parts  are  nearly 
fluid. 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE, 

298.  When  the  cuticle  —  the  natural  covering  of  the 
nerves  of  the  skin  —  is  removed  by  burns  or  scalds,  the 
smarting  nerves  should  be  quickly  covered  with  flour 
or  any  simple  dressing. 

Q.  What  is  the  natural  covering  of  the  nerves  of  the  skin  ? 
How  should  burns  be  dressed  ? 

299.  As  God,   in  his   great  goodness,  has   provided 
agents  and  material  to  renew  the  cuticle  when  destroyed, 
there  is  no  need  of  "  healing  salves  "  and  "  ointment  '* 
to  produce  "  new  skin," 

Q.  Why  do  we  not  need  healing  salves  and  ointments  ? 

EEVIEW. 

291,292,293,294,295.296,297..     .     .    Anatomy     > 

290,  291,  292,  293,  294,'  295,  296,  297.     .     Pkynolotnj  }  of  the  CUTZCLZ. 

293,293,299 Hygiene*    V 

Review  by  Questions.  —  How  is  the  skin  divided  ?  What  can  you  say  of  the  cuticle  ? 
of  its  chemical  composition  ?  of  its  coloring  matter?  of  its  thicftness?  of  the  means  liy 
which  it  is  thickened  ?  How  is  it  renewed  when  removed?  How  should  burns  bo 
treated  ? 

REVIEW  BY  TOPICS.  — Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  cuticle,  the  Physiology,  the  Hy- 
giene. (See  outline  anatomical,  Plate  IX.) 

LESSON    XXVIII. 

300.  "While  the  structure  of  the  cuticle  is  in  harmony 
with  its  use,  placed  as  an  insensible  covering  between 
external  objects  and  the  delicately  organized  subjacent 
parts,  the  inner  layer  of  the  skin,  on  the  other  hand,  is- 
highly  sensitive,  and  the  seat  of  many  functions.     From 
the  importance  of  its  structure  and  use  it  is  called  cu'tia 
ve'ra,  (true  skin.) 

Q.  Give  the  comparison  between  the  cuticle  and  cutis  vera. 

' 
THE  CUTIS   VERA.* 

301.  The  CUTIS  VERA  is  more  dense  than  the  cuticle. 
*  Illustrate  this  lesson  by  experiments,  outline  diagrams,  and  th« 


THE    CUTIS   VERA.  125 

It  contains  nerves,  blo&d  vessels,  per-spi'ra-to-ry  glands, 
and  ducts,  and  oil  glands  and  ducts.  (Figs.  95,  96,  97.) 

Q.  Describe  the  cutis.     What  does  it  contain  ? 

302.  The  ner  ;e*  are  small,  and  very  abundant,  in  every 
part  of  the  skin.  Hence  we  cannot  wound  the  skin  in 
any  part  without  causing  pain.  (Figs,  95,  96.) 

Q,  Describe  the  nerves  of  the  skin. 

Remark.  —  The  skin  is  the  most  sensitive  part  of  the 
body.  The  muscles  {lean  meat)  have  but  little  feeling ; 
while  the  ligaments,  (cords,)  bones,  and  marrow  have 
still  less  sensibility.  Consequently  the  greatest  pain  to 
the  -patient  in  surgical  operations  is  in  cutting  the  skin. 

Q.  What  is  said  in  the  remark  about  the  sensibility  of  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  body  ? 

Fig.  96. 


fig.  96.  An  ideal  representation  of  the  papillae.  1,1.  The  cutis  vera. 
2,  2.  The  papillary  layer.  3,  3.  The  arteries  of  the  papillae.  4,  4.  The 
veins  of  the  papillae.  5,  5.  The  nerves  of  the  papilla;. 

303.  The  BLOOD  VESSELS  are  the  arteries  and  veins 
11* 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE, 

through  which  the  blood  flows  to  and  from  the  skin. 
These  vessels,  as  well  as  the  nerves,  are  very  abundant, 
(Fig.  96.) 

Q.  What  is  said  of  the  blood  vessels  of  the  skin  1 
304:.  The  PERSPIRATORY  GLANDS  consist  of  very  small 
tubes,  coiled  up  in  the  deeper  parts  of  the  true  skin.     A 
small  duct  from  each  opens  upon  the  external  surface  of 
the  cuticle.  (Figs.  97,  99.) 

Q.  Of  what  does  the  perspiratory  glands  consist l     What  \® 
said  of  the  ducts  ?  I 

121 
Fig.  97. 


13 

Fig.  97.  1,1.  The  lines  or  ridges  of  the  cuticle,  cut  perpendicularly, 
3.  The  cuticle.  4,  4,  4.  The  colored,  layer  of  the  cuticle.  5,  5.  Tlit? 
cutis  vera.  9,  9.  Cells  filled  with  fat.  10,  10,  10.  The  adipose  layer, 
with  numerous  fat  vesicles.  11,  II,  11.  Cellular  fibres  of  the  adipose 
tissue.  12.  Two  hairs.  13.  A  perspiratory  gland,  with  its  spiral  duct. 
14.  Another  perspiratory  gland,  with  a  duct  less  spiral.  15,  15.  OiJ 
glands,  with  duct  opening  into  the  sheath  of  the  hair,  (12.) 

305.  These  glands  separate  from  the  blood,  and  coi> 
vey  from  the  system,  daily,  from  twenty  to  forty  ounces 
of  waste  matter.  This  refuse  material  passes  from  the 
skin  in  the  form  of  perspiration,  or  sweat.  (Figs.  97,99. } 


THE    CUTIS    VERA.  2 

Q.  What  is  the  ust  .f  the  perspiratory  glands  ?  In  what  form 
does  the  waste  matter  ;ass  from  the  skin  ? 

Experiment.  —  Place  the  hand  in  an  inverted  cold 
glass  jar ;  in  a  little  time  the  inner  surface  of  the  jar 
will  be  covered  with  moisture.  This  is  the  insensible 
perspiration,  condensed  by  coming  in  contact  with  the 
cold  jar. 

Q.  What  experiment  shows  that  the  skin  is  constantly  per- 
mitting waste  matter  to  escape  from  the  body. 

306.  The  OIL  GLANDS  are  small  bodies  in  the  deeper 
parts  of  the  true  skin,  from  which  ducts  proceed,  that 
open  into  the  sheath  of  the  hairs  and  upon  the  surface 
of  the  skin.     They  separate  an  oily  matter  that  lodges 
upon  the  hair  and  skin.   (Figs.  97,  99.) 

Q.  Describe  the  oil  glands.     What  is  their  use  ? 

307.  The  waste  matter,  separated  by  the  perspiratory 
and  oil  glands,  is  composed  of  water,  oil,  salt,  rust  of 
iron,  &c.     The  water  will  dry  off  or  evaporate  ;  but  the 
other  products  of  the  waste  atoms  of  matter  remain  upon 
the  skin,  forming  a  kind  of  varnish.  (Figs.  97,  99.) 

Q.  Of  what  does  the  waste  matter  from  the  body  consist  ? 
What  becomes  of  the  water?  Of  the  other  products  of  *he 
waste  matter  ? 

308.  BATHING  is  necessary  to  remove  the  refuse  mat- 
ter from  the  whole  surface  of  the  body.     This  should 
be  done  daily,  to  secure  perfect  health  of  the  skin. 

Q.  Why  is  bathing  necessary  ?     How  often  should  we  bathe  ? 

309.  The  waste  matter  adheres  to  the  clothing,  and 
also   to  the  bedclothes.     Hence,  when  worn  or  usea, 
they  should  be  aired  daily  and  frequently  changed. 

Q.  What  is  said  of  clothing  and  bedclothes  ? 

310.  The  garments,  particularly  of  children,  should 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

be  loosely  worn,  and  the  quantity  should  be  sufficient  to 
prevent  chills. 

Q.  How  should  children  be  clothed  ? 

311.  In  the  morning,  and  when  the  body  is  not  tired, 
we  need  less  clothing  than  when  fatigued  or  in  the 
evening.  At  all  times  wear  enough  clothing,  so  that 
there  shall  not  be  felt  the  slightest  chill. 

Q.  When  does  the  body  need  the  greatest  amount  of  clothing l 
What  general  rule  in  regard  to  clothing  1 

REVIEW. 

301,302,303,304,306.     .    Anatomy     ) 

302,  303,  305,  306,  307.    .    Physiology  [  of  the  CUTIS  VEKA. 

307,  308,  309,  310,  311.    .    Hygiene       ) 

Review  by  Questions.  —  What  does  the  cutis  vera  contain  ?  What  can  you 
say  of  its  nerves  ?  of  its  blood  vessels  ?  of  its  perspiratory  glands  ?  of  its  oil 
glands  ?  Of  what  is  the  waste  matter  composed  ?  How  is  it  separated  from 
the  body  ?  What  is  said  of  bathing  ?  of  bed  clothing  ?  of  garments  for 
children  and  others  ?  When  should  clothing  be  changed  ? 

REVIEW  BY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  cutis  yera,  the  Physi- 
ology, the  Hygiene.  (See  outline,  Plate  IX.) 


CHAPTER    IV. 

IN  this  chapter  we  shall   tell  you  something  of 
the  most  curious  operation  of  the  human  system.    It  is  the 
wonderful  function  by  which  the  warmth  of  the  living 
body  is  kept  nearly  uniform.     It  is  called  animal  heat. 
Q.  What  doe's  Chapter  IV.,  Part  III.,  treat  of? 

ANIMAL  HEAT. 

313.  The  HEAT  of  the  human  flesh  at  all  seasons  of 
the  year,  and  in  all  parts  of  the  globe,  is  nearly  the  &ame. 


ANIKAL   HEAT.  129 

From  the  River  Amazon  to  the  Polar  Sea  the  temi 
ture  of  the  body  is  about  98°. 

Q.    What  is  said  of  animal  heat  ?     What  is  the  avei 
perature  of  the  body  ? 

314.  The  heat  of  the  body  depends,  not  upon  tne  air 
that   surrounds   it,   or   the  clothing  that  covers  it,  but 
upon  the   change  of  atoms  of  matter  that  is  constantly 
taking  place  in  the  capillary  vessels  of  the  human  frame. 

Q.    Upon  what  does  animal  heat  depend  I 

315.  The  wornout  atoms  of  the  body  are  composed, 
mainly,    of  carbon  and  hydrogen.     These,  when  they 
unite  with  the  oxygen  in  the  blood  of  the  capillary  ves- 
sels in  all  parts  of  the  system,  produce  heat.* 

Q.  How  is  heat  produced  in  the  body  ? 

Remark.  —  The  burning  or  combustion  of  the  atoms 
of  matter  in  the  living  body  is  on  the  same  principle  as 
the  burning  of  coal  or  wood. 

Q.  What  is  stated  in  the  remark  ? 

316.  The  quantity  of  heat  produced  in  the  system  is 
influenced  by  the  state  of  the  mind,  the  health  of  the 
body,  the  quantity  and  kind  of  food,  the  air  we  breathe, 
the  amount  of  exercise,  and  the  kind  of  clothing. 

Q.  V/hat  influences  the  quantity  of  animal  heat  ? 

REVIEW. 

Anatomy     } 

312,  313,  314,  315.    .    Physiology  >  of  ANIMAL  HEAT. 
316 Hygiene       ) 

Review  by  Questions.  —  What  is  said  of  the  heat  of  the  body  ?    How  is 
animal  heat  produced  ?     What  modifies  the  amount  of  animal  heat  ? 
REVIEW  BY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Physiology  of  animal  heat,  the  Hygiene. 

*  Let  the  teacher  explain  the  composition  of  air,  water,  food,  and 
blood,  and  how  the  three  before-mentioned  elements  enter  into  the 
blood  vessels  of  the  body. 


130  REVIEW    LESSON. 

Fig.  98.  Fig.  99.  Fig.  100. 


Fig.  98.  1,  1.  The  spinal  column.  2.  The  skull.  4.  The  sternum.  5.  The  ribs. 
7.  The  clavicle.  8.  The  humerus.  10.  The  radius.  11.  The  ulna.  13.  The  wrist. 
14.  The  hand.  15.  The  haunch  bone.  16.  The  sacrum.  18.  The  thigh  bone.  19. 
The  patella.  21.  The  fibula.  22.  The  tibia.  23.  The  ankle  joint.  24.  The  foot 
25,  25.  The  ligaments  of  the  clavicle,  sternum,  and  ribs.  27,  28,  29.  The  ligaments 
of  the  shoulder,  elbow,  and  wrist.  31.  The  ligaments  of  the  hip  joint.  34,  35.  3fi. 
The  ligaments  of  the  patella,  knee,  and  ankle. 

Fig.  99.  1.  The  cuticle.  2.  The  cutis  vera.  3.  The  fat  below  the  skin.  4.  4 
Perspiratory'  glands  and  ducts.  f>.  Oil  glands.  6.  A  hair 


REVIEW    OF    THE    PROTECTIVE 


131 


Fig.  100.  A  front  view  of  the  muscles.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  C,  7,  8.  Muscles  of  the  head 
and  face.  9.  Muscles  of  the  neck.  10,  11,  12,  13,  14,  15,  1C,  17,  18,  19,  20.  Muscles 
of  upper  extremities.  22.  Muscles  of  the  body.  26,  27,  26,  29,  30,  31,  32,  33,  34,  36. 
Musdes  of  lower  extremities. 


SYNTHETIC  REVIEW  OF  PROTECTIVE  APPARATUS. 


218,  219,  220,  221,  223,  J  „, 
224,  226,  227.      ...     Heai> 


264,  265,  266,  267.  .    .     Composition,  of 

260.  .......   J££;  >  ANATOMY 

270,  271,  272,  273,  274.    Muscles,  )  MUSCULA 

Muscles,  continued,  \    SYSTEM, 
291,  292,  293,  294,  295,  j  ^  j  CUTANEOUS 

•ii*),  *WI  ......  )  >     svsTEJ 

301,  302,  303,  304,  306.     Cu 
222,225  ......    Head, 

233,238  ......     Tr*nk, 

U-'  2?9'  SJ'  245>  246'  i 
^4<,  <i-jy,  ^ou.      .    .    .  ) 

251,  258  .....    Lower  extremities, 

263,266,267.      .    .    .  j  ^*-  "/  g 

261  ........     ./owta,  J  IPHTSIOLOGY  I  " 

268,  269,  275,  276,  277,  j  Muscl^  1  MUSCULAR  [  j    g 

28  1*  282/283.  .'    .'        '.    Mtudu,  continued,  )    ST8TEM' 

290,  291,  292,  293,  294,  j  c  j  Cur*«oc.  P 

^yn,  ^y?  ......  )  >    SVSTEM,  ^"^  ^rf 

302,  303,  305,  306,  307.     Cutis  vera,  J  HH 
223  ........     Head,                      \ 

2^8,234.     .....     Trunk, 

Upper  extremities,  [OSSEOUS 
257,  258.    .....    Lower  extremities,  }   JYSTEM> 

jvy.  )  Composition   of 

'}    ftoiiw, 

262  ........    Joints,  ) 

ft«n  «|-        y  . 

^;  Sr2:  &  !"*  !"i  !  *-*M-i*«  I  TSS 

298,299  ......     Cutic/e,  j  CUTANEO 

307,  308,  309,  310,  311.     Cutis  vera,  \    SYSTEM, 


Review  by  Questions.  —  How  is  the  osseous  system  divided  ?  What  can  you  say  of 
the  anatomy  of  the  head  }  of  the  trunk?  of  the  upper  extremities?  of  the  lower  ex- 
tremities? of  the  joints  ?  What  can  you  state  of  the  structure  of  muscles?  How  is 
tlio  skin  divided  ?  What  can  you  relate  of  the  cuticle  ?  of  the  cutis  vera  ? 

What  <-an  you  tell  of  the  use  of  each  of  the  above-named  pans?  What  can  you 
say  of  animal  he.it? 

What  can  you  relate  of  the  means  to  prevent  disease,  and  to  preserve  health  in  the 
GSXOOUS,  muscular,  and  cutaneous  systems? 

RETIEW  FY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  protective  apparatus,  the  Physiol- 
ogy, the  Hygiene.  (U*e  outline  anatomical,  Plates  L,  II.,  III.,  IV.,  and  IX.) 


REVIEW    OF    THE    HUMAN    SYSTEM. 


SYNTHETIC  REVIEW  OE  THE  HUMAN  SYSTEM 


Preface, 

Introduction,      .     .     . 
General  analysis,   .    . 
Teeth,.     .    .     .     .     . 

Salivary  glands,      .    . 
Stomach,  .... 

Small  intestine, 

Lacteals, 

Large  intestine,  .  . 
Synthetic  review,  .  . 

Thorax, 

Lungs, 

Pulmonary  vessels,     . 

Air, 

Synthetic  review,  .     . 

Heart, 

Pulmonic  circulation, . 
Systemic  circulation,  . 
Synthetic  review,  .  . 

Vocal  organs,  .  .  . 
Synthetic  review,  .  . 


DIGESTIVE   SYS 

TEM, 


RESPIRATORS 
SYSTEM, 


CIRCULATORY 


VOCAL  SYSTEM, 


Brain, -\ 

Spinal  cord  and  nerves,  > 
Synthetic  review,  .    .   ) 


CEREBRO  SPINAL 

SYSTEM, 


Feeling,     - 
Taste 

-    > 

Smell,  

Seeing,  

!                 TEM 

TEM, 

Synthetic  review,  .  . 
Head,  .  . 

. 

1 

Trunk 

Upper  extremities,  .  . 
Lower  extremities,  . 
Composition  of  bones, 

OSSEOUS     SYS- 
TEM, 

| 

Synthetic  review,  .  . 

Muscles,  
Muscles,  continued,  . 
Synthetic  review,  .  . 

Cuticle,  1 

MUSCULAR   §YS- 

TEM, 

[VE  Al'PABAI 

Cutis  vera  
Animal  heat,  .  .  . 

Synthetic  review,  .  . 
General  synthetic  rev., 

.CUTANEOUS  SYS- 
TEM, 

cj 
5° 

HARP 

OV  A  THOUSAND  STEINCrS^ 


GENERAL  REVIEW  BY  TOPICS.  —  Give  the  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and 
Hygiene  of  the  organs,  systems,  and  apparatuses  of  man.  Use  outline 
anatomical  plates,  make  tableaux,  end  draw  illustrating  figures  upon  the 
blackboard.  (See  pages  58,  59,  90,  91,  130,  131.) 


KEY    TO   ANATOMICAL    OUTLINE    PLATES. 


KEY  TO  ANATOMICAL  OUTLINE  PLATES. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS. 

IN  using  these  plates,  we  would  suggest  that  the  pupil  carefully  examine 
the  illustrating  cuts  interspersed  with  the  text  in  connection  with  the 
.esson  to  be  recited.  The  similarity  between  these  and  the  plates  will 
enable  the  pupil  to  recite,  and  the  teacher  to  conduct,  his  recitation  from 
the  latter. 

Let  a  pupil  show  the  situation  of  an  organ,  or  part,  on  an  anatomical 
outline  plate,  and  also  give  its  structure,  while  other  members  of  the  class 
note  all  omissions  and  misstatements.  Another  pupil  may  give  the  use  of 
that  organ ;  and,  if  necessary,  others  may  give  an  extended  explanation. 
The  third  may  explain  the  laws  on  which  the  health  of  the  part  depends, 
while  other  members  of  the  class  supply  what  has  been  omitted.  After 
thus  presenting  the  subject  in  the  form  of  topics,  questions  may  be  pro- 
posed promiscuously  from  each  paragraph ;  and  where  examples  occur  in 
the  text,  let  other  analogous  ones  be  given. 

PLATE  I. 
A  FRONT  VIEW   OF  THE  SKELETON. 

Bones  of  the  Head.  7,  The  sphenoid  bone.  8,  The  frontal  bone.  10,  The 
parietal  bone.  11,  The  os  unguis.  12,  The  superior  maxillary  bone,  (up- 
per jaw.)  13,  The  nasal  bone.  14,  The  ethmoid  bone.  15,  The  malar 
bone,  (cheek  bone.)  16,  The  vomer.  17,  The  inferior  maxillary  bone,  (the 
lower  jaw.)  a,  Its  body,  b,  Its  ramus,  or  branch.  18,  The  teeth. 

Bone*  of  the  Trunk.  1,  1,  The  spinal  column.  2,  The  sternum.  3,  3,  The 
ribs.  4,  The  sacrum.  5,  The  innominatum. 

Bones  of  the  Upper  Extremities.  19,  The  clavicle,  (collar  bone.)  20,  The 
scapula,  (shoulder  blade.)  21,  The  humerus.  22,  The  ulna.  23,  The 
rrdius.  24,  25,  26,  27,  28,  29,  30,  31,  The  bones  of  the  carpus,  (wrist.) 

32,  32,  32,  The  five  bones  of  the  metacarpus,  (the  palm  of  the  hand.)     33, 

33,  33,  The  first  range  of  finger  bones.     34,  34,  The  second  range  of  finger 
bones.     35,  35,  35,  The  third  range  of  finger  bones. 

Bones  of  the  Lower  Extremities.  36,  The  femur,  (thigh  bone.)  37,  The 
patella,  (knee  pan.)  38,  The  tibia,  (shin  bone.)  39,  The  fibula.  40,40, 
40,  The  bones  of  the  tarsus,  (instep.)  41,  41,  The  bones  of  the  metatar- 
sus, (middle  of  the  foot.)  42,  42,  The  bones  of  the  toes. 


KEY    TO    ANATOMICAL    OUTLINE    PLATES. 

ARTICULATIONS.     (Left  side  of  the  plate.) 

Ligaments  of  the  Trunk.  1.  1,  The  common  spinal  ligament.  2,  2,  The 
intervertebral  ligament,  (cartilage  between  the  vertebra.)  9,  10,  11,  12,  Ar- 
ticulations of  the  ribs  with  the  spinal  column.  13,  13,  14,  15,  16,  Liga- 
ments that  connect  the  cartilages  of  the  ribs  with  the  sternum. 

Ligaments  of  the  Upper  Extremities.  25,  The  ligament  that  connects  the 
clavicle  and  sternum.  27,  The  ligament  that  connects  the  upper  rib  and 
clavicle.  28,  29,  30,  Ligaments  that  connect  the  clavicle  and  scapula.  81, 

32,  33,  34,  Ligaments  of  the  shoulder  joint.     35,  35,  36,  Ligaments  of  the 
elbow  joint.     37,  38,  39,  40,  Ligaments  of  the  wrist.     41,  42,  43,  44,  Liga- 
ments of  the  fingers. 

Ligaments  of  the  Lower  Extremities.  49,  49,  Ligaments  of  the  hip  joint. 
50,  6.0,  Ligaments  of  the  patella.  51,  52,  53,  54,  55,  Ligaments  of  the  knee 
joint.  .56,  A  large  bursa  mucosa.  57,  The  ligament  of  the  tibia  and  fibula. 
58,  58,  The  interosseous  ligament.  59,  59,  Ligaments  of  the  ankle  joint. 
60,  61,  62,  Ligaments  of  the  metatarsus.  63,  64,  Ligaments  of  the  toes. 

A,  The  brachial  artery.  B,  The  brachial  vein.  C,  The  radial  artery. 
D,  The  femoral  artery.  E,  The  femoral  vein.  F,  G,  The  anterior  tibia! 
artery. 

PLATE  II. 
A  BACK  VIEW  OF  THE  SKELETON. 

Bones  of  the  Head.  5,  The  occipital  bone.  6,  Ine  parietal  bone.  7,  The 
temporal  bone.  8,  The  frontal  bone.  9,  The  sphenoid  bone.  15,  The 
malar  bone.  16,  The  nasal  bone.  17,  The  superior  maxillary  bone,  (upper 
jaw.)  18,  The  inferior  maxillary  bone,  (lower  jaw.)  19,  The  teeth. 

Bones  of  the  Trunk.  1,1,  The  spinal  column.  2,  The  sacrum.  3,  The 
coccyx.  20,  The  innominatum.  4,  4,  The  ribs. 

Bones  of  the  Upper  Extremities.  21,  The  clavicle,  (collar  bone.)  22, 
The  scapula,  (shoulder  blade.)  23,  The  humerus.  24,  The  ulna.  25,  The 
radius.  26,  27,  28,  29,  30,  31,  32,  The  bones  of  the  carpus,  (wrist.)  33,  33, 

33,  The  bones  of  the  metacarpus,   (palm  of  the  hand.)     34,  34,  34,  The 
first  range  of  finger  bones.     35,  35,  The  second  range  of  finger  bones.     36, 
36,  36,  The  third  range  of  finger  bones. 

Bones  of  the  Lower  Extremities.  37,  The  femur,  (thigh  bone.)  38,  The 
patella,  (knee  pan.)  39,  The  tibia,  (shin  bone.)  40,  The  fibula.  41,  42, 
43,  44,  45,  The  bones  of  the  tarsus,  (instep.)  46,  46,  The  bones  of  the 
metatarsus,  (middle  of  the  foot.)  47,  47,  Bones  of  the  toes. 

ARTICULATIONS.    (Left  side  of  the  plate.) 
Ligaments  of  the   Trunk.     1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,   10,  Ligaments  of  the 

spinal  column.     14,  14,  15,  15,  Ligaments  that  connect  the  ribs  and  spinal 

column.     11,  11,  21,  22,  23,  24,  25,  26,  Ligaments  that  connect  the  sacrum 

and  innominatum. 

Ligaments  of  the  Upper  Extremities.     27,  28,   Ligaments  that  connect 

the  clavicle  and  scapula.     29,  The  capsular  ligament  of  the  shoulder  joint. 


KEY    TO    ANATOMICAL    OUTLINE    PLATES.  3 

30,  30,  Ligaments  of  the  elbow.    31,  32,  33,  34,  Ligaments  of  the  carpus, 
(wrist.) 

Ligaments  of  the  Lower  Extremities.  9,  Tendon  of  the  gluteus  muscle. 
35,  The  capsular  ligament  of  the  hip  joint.  36,  36,  Ligaments  of  the  knee 
joint.  37,  The  ligament  that  connects  the  tibia  and  fibula.  38,  The  inter- 
osseous  ligament.  39,  40,  Ligaments  of  the  ancle  joint. 

PLATE   III. 
A  FRONT  VIEW  OF  THE  MUSCLES. 

Muscles  of  the  Head  and  Neck.  7,  The  sterno-mastoideus  muscle. 
8,  The  sterno-hyoideus  muscle.  9,  The  omo-hyoideus  muscle.  10,  The 
trapezius  muscle.  11,  The  orbicularis  oculi  muscle.  12,  The  frontal 
muscle.  14,  The  orbicularis  oris  muscle.  15,  The  elevator  muscle  of  the 
nostrils.  16,  The  zygomatic  muscle.  17,  The  depressor  of  the  lower 
lip.  18,  The  depressor  anguli  oris  muscle.  19,  The  triangular  muscle  of 
the  nose.  20,  21,  The  aural  muscles.  22,  The  masseter  muscle. 

Muscles  of  the  Trunk.     2,  3,  The  external  oblique  muscles. 

Muscles  of  the  Upper  Extremities.  1,  The  grand  pectoral  muscle. 
3,  4,  The  serratus  muscle.  23,  The  deltoid  muscle.  24,  The  biceps  bra- 
chialis  muscle.  25,  The  coraco-brachialis  muscle.  26,  The  anterior  bra- 
chial  muscle.  27,  The  triceps  brachialis  muscle.  28,  The  long  supinator 
muscle.  29,  The  external  radial  muscle.  30,  The  pronator  teres  muscle. 

31,  The  anterior  radial  muscle.     32,  The  palinaris  brevis  muscle.     33,  The 
anterior  ulnar  muscle.     35,  The  palmar  muscle.     36,  The  abductor  muscle 
of  the   thumb.     37,  The   adductor  muscle  of  the   thumb.     38,  39,  Small 
flexor  muscles  of  the  thumb.     40,  The  abductor  muscle  of  the  little  finger. 
41,  41,  The  lumbricales  muscles.     61,  61,  The  bifurcation  of  the  tendons  of 
the  superficial  flexor  muscle  in  the  fingers. 

Muscles  of  the  Lower  Extremities.  42,  The  fascia  lata  muscle.  43,  The 
sartorius  muscle.  44,  The  rectus  femoris  muscle.  45,  The  vastus  externus 
muscle.  46,  The  vastus  interims  muscle.  47,  The  internal  straight  mus- 
cle. 48,  The  pectineus  muscle.  49,  The  adductor  muscle.  50,  The  psoas 
muscle.  51,  The  tibialis  anticus  muscle.  52,  The  long  extensor  muscle 
of  the  great  toe.  53,  The  long  extensor  muscle  of  the  toes.  54,  The  ante- 
rior peroneal  muscle.  55,  The  long  lateral  peroneal  muscle.  56,  57,  The 
gastrocnemii  muscles.  58,  The  long  flexor  muscle  of  the  great  toe.  59, 
The  short  extensor  muscles  of  the  toes.  60,  The  abductor  muscle  of  the 
great  toe. 

The  figures  and  letters  on  the  left  side  of  the  plate  indicate  the  position 
of  important  fasciae  that  cover  the  muscles  and  enclose  the  tendons. 

PLATE  IV. 

A  BACK  VIEW  OF  THE  MUSCLES. 
Muscles  of  the  Head  and  Neck.    4,  The  sterno-mastoideus  muscle.  5,  The 


KEY  TO  ANATOMICAL  OUTLINE  PLATK?. 

complexus  muscle.  6,  The  mylo-hyoideus  muscle.  7,  8,  The  oocipito 
froutalis  muscle.  9,  The  masseter  muscle.  10,  11,  12,  The  anterior,  mid- 
dle, and  posterior  aural  muscles.  13,  The  temporal  muscle. 

Muscles  of  the  Trunk.  1,1,  The  trapezius  muscle.  2,  The  latissimus 
dorsi  muscle.  3,  The  rhomboideus  muscle.  4,  The  external  oblique  muscle. 

Muscles  of  the  Upper  Extremities.  5,  The  deltoid  muscle.  6,  7,  The 
infra-spinatus  muscle.  9,  The  triceps  extensor  muscle.  10,  The  internal 
brachial  muscle.  11,  The  long  supinator  muscle.  12,  The  external  radial 
muscle.  13,  The  second  external  radial  muscle.  14,  The  anconeus  muscle. 
15,  16,  The  extensor  digitorum  communis  muscle.  17,  The  extensor  carpi 
ulnaris  muscle.  18,  The  liexor  carpi  ulnaris.  19,  20,  The  extensor  ossfe 
metacarpi  pollicis  muscles.  21,  An  extensor  muscle  of  the  thumb.  22,  28, 
Interossii  muscles. 

Mvisclcs  of  the  Lower  Extremities.  29,  The  gluteus  maximus  muscle. 
30,  The  gluteus  medius  muscle.  31,  The  biceps  flexor  cruris  muscle.  32, 
The  semi-tendinosus  muscle.  33,  The  semi-membranosis  muscle.  34,  The 
gracilis  muscle.  35,  The  adductor  muscle.  36,  The  vastus  externus  mus- 
cle. 37,  The  sartorius  muscle.  38,  39,  The  gastrocnemii  muscles.  40,  The 
long  peroneal  muscle.  41,  The  external  peroneal  muscle.  42,  The  long 
flexor  muscle  of  the  great  toe.  43,  The  long  extensor  muscle  of  the  toes. 
44,  The  short  extensor  muscle  of  the  toes.  47,  The  short  flexor  muscle  of 
the  toes. 

The  figures  and  letters  on  the  left  side  of  the  plate  indicate  the  position 
of  membranous  fasciae  which  envelop  the  muscles  and  tendons. 


PLATE  V. 
ORGANS  OF  THE  THORAX  AND  ABDOMEN. 

Fig.  1.  The  Mouth  and  Neck.  (A  side  view.)  1,  The  upper  lip.  2,  The 
lower  lip.  3,  The  upper  jaw.  4,  The  lower  jaw.  5,  The  tongue.  6,  The 
hard  palate,  (roof  of  the  mouth.)  7,  The  parotid  gland.  8,  The  sublingual 
gland.  T,  The  larynx.  10,  The  pharynx.  11,  The  oesophagus.  12,  The 
upper  portion  of  the  spinal  column.  C,  The  spinal  cord. 

The  Chest  and  its  Organs.  9,  9,  The  trachea.  R,  The  right  auricle  of 
the  heart.  L,  The  left  auricle.  13,  The  left  ventricle  of  the  heart.  14, 
The  right  ventricle.  15,  The  aorta.  16,  The  pulmonary  artery.  17,  The 
Tena  cava  descendens.  18,  The  right  subclavian  vein.  19,  The  left  subcla- 
vian  vein.  20,  The  right  jugular  vein.  21,  The  left  jugular  vein.  22, 
The  right  carotid  artery.  23,  The  left  carotid  artery.  24,  25,  26,  The  up- 
per, middle,  and  lower  lobes  of  the  right  lung.  27,  28,  The  upper  and  low- 
er lobes  of  the  left  lung.  29,  29,  29,  The  diaphragm.  P,  P,  P,  P,  The 
pleura,  that  lines  the  cavity  of  the  chest.  S,  S,  The  clavicles.  O,  O,  O, 
O,  The  ribs.  M,  M,  M,  M,  Muscles  of  the  chest.  40,  The  thoracic  duct, 
opening  into  the  left  subclavian  vein. 

The  Abdomen  and  its  Organs.  30,  The  stomach.  31,  32,  The  right  and 
left  lobe  of  the  liver.  F,  The  fissure  that  separates  the  two  lobes.  33, 


TO    ANATOMICAL   OUTLINE    PLATES.  5 

The  gall  bladder.  34,  34,  The  duodenum.  35,  The  ascending  colon.  36, 
The  transverse  colon.  37,  The  descending  colon.  38,  38,  38,  38,  The  small 
intestine.  39,  39,  The  walls  of  the  abdominal  cavity  turned  down.  41, 
The  spleen. 

Fig.  2.  The  Relation  of  the  Lacteals  and  Thoracic  Duct.  1,  1,  A  section 
of  the  small  intestine.  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  Mesenteric  glands,  through 
which  the  lacteals  from  the  intestine  pass.  3,  Several  lacteal  vessels  enter- 
ing the  enlarged  portion  and  commencement  of  the  thoracic  duct.  5,  o,  5, 
The  thoracic  duct.  6,  The  thoracic  duct  opening  into  the  left  subclavian 
vein.  7,  (See  40,  Fig.  1.)  8,  The  right  subclavian  vein.  9,  The  vena  ca- 
va  descendens.  10,  11,  11,  The  aorta.  12,  The  carotid  arteries.  13, 13,  The 
jugular  veins.  14,  The  vena  azagos.  15,  15,  The  spinal  column.  16,  The 
diaphragm. 

Fig.  3.  The  Relation  of  the  Larynx,  Trachea,  Bronchia,  and  Air  Cells. 
1,  1,  1,  An  outline  of  the  right  lung.  2,  2,  2,  An  outline  of  the  left  lung. 
3,  The  larynx.  4,  The  trachea.  5,  The  right  bronchia.  6,  The  left  bron- 
chia. 7,  7,  7,  7,  Divisions  of  the  right  bronchia.  8,  8,  8,  8,  Divisions  of 
the  left  bronchia.  9,  9,  9,  9,  9,  9,  Air  cells. 

Fig.  4.  An  ideal  View  of  a  lateral  and  vertical  Section  of  the  Larynx. 
1,  1,  The  superior  vocal  cords,  (ligaments.)  2,  2,  The  inferior  vocal  cords. 
3,  3,  The  glottis.  4,  4,  The  ventricles  of  the  larynx. 


PLATE  VI. 
HEART,  ARTERIES,  AND  VEINS. 

Fig.  1.  The  Heart  and  large  Arteries.  1,  The  right  auricle  of  the  heart. 
2,  The  right  ventricle  of  the  heart.  3,  The  left  auricle.  4,  The  left  ventri- 
cle. 5,  The  pulmonary  artery.  6,  the  aorta.  7,  7,  The  descending  aorta. 
8,  The  arteria  innominata.  9,  The  left  carotid  artery.  10,  The  left  subcla- 
vian artery.  56,  The  right  subclavian  artery. 

Arteries  of  the  Neck  and  Head.  15,  The  right  carotid  artery.  16,  The 
left  carotid  artery.  17,  The  right  temporal  artery.  50,  The  right  facial 
artery.  54,  The  left  temporal  artery. 

Arteries  of  the  Upper  Extremities.  11,  11,  The  left  brachial  artery.  12, 
The  left  radial  artery.  13,  13,  The  right  brachial  artery.  14,  The  right 
radial  artery.  51,  The  right  ulnar  artery. 

Arteries  of  the  Lower  Extremities.  18,  The  left  iliac  artery.  19,  The 
right  iliac  artery.  20,  The  left  femoral  artery.  21,  The  right  femoral  arte- 
ry. 22,  The  peroneal  artery.  23,  The  left  anterior  tibial  artery.  24,  The 
muscular  artery.  25,  25,  The  right  and  left  arteria  profunda.  26.  The 
right  anterior  tibial  artery.  27,  The  right  peroneal  artery. 

The  Veins  of  the  Neck  and  Head.  28,  The  vena  cava  descendens.  29, 
The  left  subclavian  vein.  30,  The  right  subclavian  vein.  31,  The  right 
jugular  vein.  32,  The  left  jugular  vein.  53,  The  right  temporal  vein.  55, 
The  left  temporal  vein.  49,  the  right  facial  vein. 

Veins  of  (he  Upper  Extremities.    33,  The  left  brachial  vein.    34,  The  left 


6  KEY   TO    ANATOMICAL    OUTLINE    PLATES. 

radial  vein.  35,  The  right  brachial  vein.  36,  The  right  radial  vein.  51, 
The  right  ulnar  vein. 

Veins  of  the  Lower  Extremities.  37,  The  vena  cava  ascendens.  38,  The 
left  iliac  vein.  39,  The  right  iliac  vein.  40,  The  left  femoral  vein.  41, 
The  right  femoral  vein.  42,  The  left  anterior  tibial  vein.  43,  The  left  pe- 
roneal  vein.  44,  The  right  anterior  tibial  vein.  45,  The  right  peroneal 
vein.  46,  46,  The  profunda  veins.  47,  The  muscular  veins.  48,  48,  48,  48, 
48,  48,  Intercostal  arteries  and  veins. 

Fig.  2.  The  Relation  of  the  Cavities  of  the  Heart  to  the  large  Blood  Ves- 
sels. 1,  The  vena  cava  descendens.  2,  The  vena  cava  ascendens.  3,  The 
right  auricle  of  the  heart.  4,  The  opening  between  the  right  auricle  and 
right  ventricle.  5,  The  right  ventricle.  6,  The  tricuspid  valves.  7,  The 
pulmonary  artery.  8,  8,  The  branches  of  the  pulmonary  artery  that  pass  to 
the  right  and  left  lung.  9,  The  semilunar  valves  of  the  pulmonary  artery. 
10,  The  left  pulmonary  veins.  11,  The  right  pulmonary  veins.  12,  The 
left  auricle.  13,  The  opening  between  the  left  auricle  and  left  ventricle. 
14,  The  left  ventricle.  15,  The  mitral  valves.  16,  16,  The  aorta.  17,  The 
semilunar  valves  of  the  aorta.  18,  The  septum  between  the  right  and  left 
ventricle. 

Fig.  3.  An  ideal  View  of  the  Heart,  Arteries,  and  Veins.  A,  The  right 
auricle.  B,  The  right  ventricle.  C,  The  tricuspid  valves.  D,  The  open- 
ing between  the  right  auricle  and  right  ventricle.  E,  the  left  auricle. 
F,  The  left  ventricle.  G,  The  mitral  valves.  H,  The  opening  between 
the  left  auricle  and  left  ventricle.  I,  The  septum  between  the  right  and 
left  ventricle.  K,  The  pulmonary  artery.  L,  The  semilunar  valves  of  the 
pulmonary  artery.  M,  M,  The  right  pulmonary  artery.  N,  N,  The  left 
pulmonary  artery.  O,  0,  O,  O,  0,  O,  The  capillary  vessels  of  the  lungs. 
P,  P,  P,  The  right  pulmonary  vein.  Q,  Q,  The  left  pulmonary  vein. 
R,  R,  The  aorta.  S,  The  semilunar  valves  of  the  aorta.  T,  T,  A  branch 
of  the  aorta  to  the  upper  extremities.  U,  U,  U,  U,  A  branch  to  the  lower 
extremities.  V,  V,  V,  V,  V,  V,  The  capillary  vessels  at  the  extremity 
of  the  branches  of  the  aorta.  W,  W,  The  descending  vena  cava.  X,  X,  X, 
The  ascending  vena  cava. 

In  Figs.  1,  2,  3,  the  course  of  the  blood  through  the  circulatory  vessels  is 
indicated  by  arrows. 


PLATE   VII. 
THE  PULMONARY  CIRCULATION. 

Fig.  1.  1,  The  right  auricle  of  the  heart.  2,  The  left  auricle.  3,  The 
right  ventricle  of  the  heart.  4,  The  left  ventricle.  5,  The  pulmonary 
artery.  6,  The  branch  of  the  pulmonary  artery  to  the  left  lung.  7,  The 
branch  of  the  pulmonary  artery  to  the  right  lung.  8,  8,  8,  8,  8,  8,  8,  8,  8,  8, 
Branches  of  the  pulmonary  artery  in  the  right  and  left  lung.  9,  9, 9,  9,  9, 9, 
Air  cells.  10,  10,  10,  10,  10,  10,  10,  Small  pulmonary  veins  in  the  right 
and  left  lung.  11,  The  left  pulmonr.ry  vein.  12,  12,  The  right  pulmonary 


KEY  TO  ANATOMICAL  OUTLINE  PLATKS.        7 

Fig  2.  An  ideal  View  of  the  Pttlmonary  Circulation.  1,1,  The  right 
lung.  2,  2,  The  left  lung.  3,  The  trachea.  4,  4, 4,  4,  4,  The  right  bron- 
chia. 5,  5,  5,  5,  5,  The  left  bronchia.  6, 6,  6, 6, 6,  6,  Air  cells,  with  arteries 
and  veins  passing  around  them.  7,  The  right  auricle  of  the  heart.  8,  The 
right  ventricle  of  the  heart.  9,  The  tricuspid  valves.  10,  The  pulmonary 
artery.  11,  11,  11,  11,  The  right  pulmonary  artery.  12,  12,  12,  12,  12,  The 
left  pulmonary  artery.  13,  13,  13,  13,  The  right  pulmonary  vein.  14,  14, 
14,  14,  The  left  pulmonary  vein.  15,  The  left  auricle.  16,  The  left  ven- 
tricle. 17  The  mitral  valves.  18,  The  septum  between  the  right  and  left 
ventricles. 

Fig.  3.  An  ideal  Vieic  of  the  Capillaries.  1,  1,  A  branch  of  the  pul- 
monary artery.  2,  2,  A  branch  of  the  pulmonary  vein.  3,  3,  Capillary 
vessels  between  the  artery  and  vein. 

Fig.  4.  An  ideal  View  of  the  Relations  of  the  Bronchia,  Air  Cells,  Pul- 
monary Arteries,  and  Veins.  1,  A  bronchial  tube.  2,  2,  2,  Air  cells.  3,  A 
branch  of  the  pulmonary  artery.  4,  A  branch  of  the  pulmonary  vein. 


PLATE  VIII. 

THE  CEREBRUM,  CEREBELLUM,  SPINAL  CORD,  AND 
NERVES. 

I,  The  cerebrum.    2,  The  cerebellum.    3,  3,  The  spinal  cord.    4,  The 
brachial  plexus  of  nerves.    5,  The  lumbar  plexus  of  nerves.    6,  The  sacral 
plexus  of  nerves.    7,  The  facial  nerve.    8,  17,  The  radial  nerve.    9,  9,  16, 
The  ulnar  nerve.    10,  The  median  nerve.    G,  The  circumflex  nerve  of  the 
shoulder. 

II,  11,  The  great  sciatic  nerve.    12,  The  external  popliteal,  or  peroneal, 
nerve.     13,  13,  The  posterior  tibial  nerve.     14,  Th*  external  tibial  nerve. 
15,  The  muscular  branch  of  the  external  peroneal  nerve.     18,  The  muscular 
branch  of  the  sciatic  nerve.     P,  Q,  The  posterior  tibial  nerve. 

The  letters  and  other  figures  indicate  minor  nervous  filaments  distrib- 
uted to  the  various  muscles  and  the  skin. 


PLATE  IX. 

THE  SKIN. 

Fig.  1.  A  perspiratory  Tube  and  Gland.  1,  1,  The  contorted  portion  of 
she  tube  that  forms  the  gland.  2,  2,  Two  branches  which  unite  to  form 
the  main  duct  of  the  gland.  3,  3,  The  perspiratory  tube.  4,  The  cuticle. 
6,  Its  colored  portion.  6,  The  cutis  vcra,  (true  skin.)  7,  7,  Fat  vesicles, 
in  which  the  gland  is  embedded. 

Fig.  2.  A  Papilla  of  the  Skin.  1,  1,  Two  papillae,  formed  of  an  artery, 
vein,  and  nerve.  2,  2,  2,  2,  Nerves  forming  a  loop  in  the  papillae.  3,  3, 
Arteries  of  the  papillae.  4,  4,  Veins  of  the  papillae.  5,  5,  A  network  of 


KEY  TO  ANATOMICAL  OUTLINE  PLATES. 

arteries,  veins,  and  nerves.  6,  6,  Nerves  of  the  skin.  8,  8,  Arteries  of  the 
skin.  7,  7,  Veins  of  the  skin. 

Fig.  3.  A  Hair,  and  its  Oil  Glands,  1,1,  The  hair.  2,  2,  The  sheatl 
of  the  hair.  3,  Oil  glands  that  surround  the  bulb  of  the  hixir,  the  ducts 
of  which  open  into  the  sheath  of  the  hair,  (2,  2.) 

Fig.  4.  A  Section  of  the  Skin.  1,  1,  The  cuticle.  2,  2,  Its  colored  por- 
tion. 3,  3,  The  papillary  layer.  4,  4,  A  network  of  arteries,  veins,  and 
nerves  upon  the  upper  surface  of  the  cutis  vera.  5,  5,  5,  5,  The  cutis 
vera,  (true  skin.)  6,  6,  6,  Hairs  that  originate  in  the  cutis  vera.  7,  7,  7, 
Oil  glands,  the  ducts  of  which  connect  with  the  sheath  of  the  hair.  8,  8,  8, 
8,  8,  S,  8,  8,  Perspiratory  glands  and  their  ducts.  9,  9,  9,  9,  9,  Nerves  of 
the  skin.  10,  10,  10,  10,  10,  Arteries  of  the  skin.  11,  11,  11,  11,  11,  Veins 
of  the  skin.  12,  12,  12,  12,  Papillae,  or  ridges  of  the  skin. 


PLATE   X. 
AN  ANTERO-POSTERIOR  SECTION  OF  THE  EYE. 

Fig.  1.  1,  1,  The  sclerotic  coat.  2,  2,  The  cornea.  3,  3,  The  choroid 
coat.  4,  4,  The  retina.  5,  5,  The  iris.  6,  6,  The  posterior  chamber  of  the 
eye  that  contains  the  aqueous  humor.  7,  7>  The  anterior  chamber.  8,  8, 
The  pupil.  9,  The  crystalline  humor.  10,  10,  The  vitreous  humor.  11, 
The  optic  nerve.  12,  A  representation  of  a  pen.  13,  An  inverted  image 
of  the  pen  (12)  on  the  retina.  14,  14,  A  canal  surrounding  the  crystalline 
humor.  15,  15,  The  bevelled  junction  of  the  cornea  and  sclerotic  coats 
A,  A  perpendicular  ray  of  light  from  the  pen.  B,  B,  Oblique  rays  that  are 
refracted  in  passing  through  the  humors  of  the  eye. 

Fig.  2.  A  View  of  the  External,  Middle,  and  Internal  Ear.  1,  1,  The 
external  ear.  2,  The  meatus  auditorius  externus,  (the  tube  that  connects 
with  the  middle  ear.)*  3,  The  membrana  tympani,  (drum  of  the  ear.)  8 
8,  The  tympanum,  (middle  ear.)  4,  The  malleus.  5,  The  incus.  6,  The 
orbicularis.  7,  The  stapes,  (stirrup  bone,)  that  connects  with  the  vestibule 
of  the  internal  ear.  9,  9,  (4,  5,  6,  7,  The  small  bones  of  the  middle  ear,) 
10,  11,  12,  The  semicircular  canals.  13,  13,  The  cochlea.  14,  The  auditory 
nerve.  15,  The  division  of  the  auditory  nerve  to  the  semicircular  canals. 
16,  The  division  to  the  cochlea.  17,  17,  The  Eustachian  tube.  18,  The 
chorda  tympani  nerve.  19,  The  seventh  pair  (facial)  nerve.  20,  The  sty- 
loid  process  of  the  temporal  bone.  21,  21,  21,  21,  21,  The  petrous,  or  hard 
portion  of  the  temporal  bone,  in  which  the  parts  of  the  middle  and  internal 
ear  are  situated. 


TEXT  BOOKS 

UPON 

&natomy,  Physiology,  and  Hygiene. 

lecommended  by  the  Hon.  N.  W.  EDWARDS,  School  Sup't,  IU. 


[UMAX  AND  COMPARATIVE  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AXD 
HYGIENE.  For  District  Schools.  With  100  Engravings.  132  pages. 
By  MRS.  EUNICE  P.  CUTTER.  Price  33  cts. 

This  work  contains  full  directions  for  ihe  study  and  teaching  of  Anatomy,  Physiology, 
nd  Hygiene.  This  is  a  new  feature.  Every  teacher  would  profit  by  it.  The  plan  of 
he  wurk  can  be  gathered  from  the  following  fac-simile  of  the  table  of  contents :  — 

Preface, 6 

Introduction, 8 

General  Analysis,....    10 

Teeth, 13 

CHAP.  I.          |    Salivary  Glands, 19 

Stomach, 22 

Small  Intestine, 26 


'STUDY  .UE. 


DIGESTIVE 
SYSTEM. 

CHAP.    II. 

RESPIRATORY 

SYSTEM. 

CHAP.  III. 

CIRCULATORY 
SYSTEM. 

CHAP.  IV. 

VOCAL   SYSTEM. 

CHAP.    I. 

CEREBRO-8PIXAL 

SYSTEM. 


Lacteals, 30 

Large  Intestine, 32 

Synthetic  Review,...  35 

(  Thorax, 3G 

j    Lungs, 39 

<    Pulmonary  Vessels,..  43 

•    Air, . 45 

|^  Synthetic  Review^.. .  48 

Heart, 50 

Pulmonic  Circulation,  53 

Systemic  Circulation,  56 

Synthetic  Review,....  58 

,.  61 


£    Vocal  organs 


Synthetic  Review,....   64 


1 1  am  fearfully  and 
uronderfully  made." 


CHAP.  II. 

SENTIENT 
SYSTEM. 


CHAP.  I. 

OSSBOU8 
SYSTEM. 

CHAP.  II. 

MUSCULAR 

SYSTEM. 

CHAP.    III. 

CUTANEOUS 

SYSTEM. 


Brain, 67 

Spin'l  Cord  &  Nerves,    70 
Synthetic  Review,....    72 

Peeling, 73 

Taste, 74 

Smell, 75 

Seeing, 76 

Hearing, 80 

Synthetic  Review,...  84 

Head, 86 

Trunk,. 89 

Upper  Extremities,  . .    93 
Lower  Extremities,..    97 

Joints, 101 

Composit'n  of  Bones,  105 
Synthetic  Review,....  108 

C  Muscles, 110 

<   Muscles,  continued,..  114 
£  Synthetic  Review,...  1-20 

C  Cuticle, 122 

CntiM  Vera, 126 

{    Animal  Heat, 129 

j    Synthetic  Review,...  130 
I    General  Syn.  Review,  132 


CUTTER'S  REVISED 
ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY,   AND   HYGIENE, 

1.  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  HYGIENE,  for  Colleges,    Academies,    High 
Schools,  and  Families.    458  pages,  150  illustrating  engravings.    By  CALVIN  CUTTKR 
'M.  D.    Price  $1.00. 

2.  FIRST  BOOK   IN  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND   HYGIENE,  for  Grammar 
and  Select  Schools.     180  pages,  83  illustrating  engravings.     By  CALVIN  CUTTER,  M  D. 
Price  45  cents. 

3.  CUTTER'S  LARGE  OUTLINE  ANATOMICAL  PLATES,  (10  in  a  set,  three  feet 
by  two,)  beautifully  colored  and  mounted,  for  Colleges,  Academies,  and  High  Schools. 
Price  $10.00. 

4.  THE  SAME,  colored  but  not  mounted.    Price  $5.00. 

5.  CUTTER'S  DISTRICT  SCHOOL  OUTLINE  ANATOMICAL  PLATES,  (8  in  a  set,) 
beautifully  colored  and  mounted,  for  Grammar  and  District  Schools.     Price  $6.00. 

6    THE  SAME,  colored  but  not  mounted.    Price  $3.00. 

EEAD   THE   FOLLOWING. 

Mission  Schools. 
Cutter'H  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Hygiene  has  been  introduced  as  a  text  book  into 
the  Mission  Schools  of  China,  Burrnah,  Ceylon,  Sandwich  Islands,  and  the  Cherokee 
Indians.     It  also  has  been  translated  into  the  Tamil  language  by  the  Missionaries!  of  India. 

Normal  Schools. 

These  works  are  used  in  the  three  State  Normal  Schools  of« Massachusetts,  the  State 
Normal  School  of  Michigan,  and  the  State  Normal  School  of  New  York. 

"  I  hereby  certify  that  Cutter's  Physiology,  the  last  edition,  (1852,)  has  been  adopted 
as  the  text  book  in  that  science  by  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Stale  Normal 
School.  T.  ROMEYN  BECK,  Secretary. 

"Albany,  JV.  Y.,  October  19,  1852." 

Colleges^  Academies,  and  Seminaries. 

In  the  report  of  the  Colleges,  Academies,  and  Seminaries  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
to  the  Regents  of  the  University  of  the  State,  140  report  the  study  of  Physiology  ;  of 
these,  127  now  use  Cutter's  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Hygiene,  with  Cutter's  Ana- 
tomical Platos. 

In  every  State  of  the  Union  Cutter's  works  are  as  extensively  used  in  Colleges, 
Academies,  and  Seminaries  as  in  the  State  of  New  York. 

State  Recommendations. 

EVERV  STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION  that  has  recommended  text  books  upon  Anat- 
omy, Physiology,  and  Hygiene,  has  adopted  Cutter's.  To  this  there  are  no  exceptions. 
They  have  been  recommended  in  MAINE,  NEW  HAMPSHIRE,  VERMONT,  MICHIGAN, 
INDIANA,  and  ILLINOIS. 

Illinois. 

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Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  flt/gienc,  by  CALVIN  CUTTER,  M.  D.,          ...     63 
First  Book  on  Jlnatnmy,  Physiology,  and  Hyyiene,  by  CALVIN  CUTTER,  M.  D.,      27 
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obtained  of  JOHNSON  &  BRADFORD,  Springfield  ,  of  S  C.  GRIGOS  &  Co.,  Chicago  ;  of  S. 

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